Disability Theory

Richard III in Shakespeare's Richard III (1592–4), Tiny Tim in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol (1592–4), Matt Murdock in Marvel's Daredevil (2015–)... We can find representations of disability and bodily differences in many of the books, poems, TV shows, films, and plays that we read and watch.

However, despite how common disability is in our society and culture, it has often been left out of literary studies conversations. Disability theory aims to change this.

This article will introduce you to the basics of disability theory, including its basis in the social model of disability and how you can use it to help you identify and think about representations of disability in literature.

Critical disability theory definition

Questions about identity and its relation to the world are central to literature classes and the discussions we have within them. Race, ethnicity, nationality, sexuality, gender, and disability are just a few of the topics that you may have already come across.

When we read or watch a book, poem, play, or film that deals with one or more of these topics, we are prompted to think about our own identities and the identities of others. In literary studies, we use various theories to ask how and why identities are represented in certain ways and what this says about the complicated relationships between identity, society, and culture.

So, how do disability and critical disability theory come into this?

Critical disability theory emerged from disability studies, a broad, interdisciplinary (involving many subjects) field that grew out of the disability rights movement during the second half of the twentieth century and aimed to challenge ableism.

The word ‘critical’ in critical disability theory relates to this political background. Because disability studies and the disability rights movement were influenced by other civil rights movements across the world, critical disability theory looks at disability in relation to other aspects of identity that may also be subject to social oppression, such as race, sexuality, and gender. For critical disability theorists, the dominant attitudes about race in a society, for example, are connected to how people and societies think about disability as well.

The medical and social model of disability theory

There are two main models of disability: the medical model and the social model. The disability rights movement and disability studies have been mainly driven by the latter. So, what are these models? And why do some people prefer one over the other?

Imagine the following scenario: there is an event happening in your area and an open invitation saying 'everyone welcome!' was published in the local newspaper. However, when you get to the event location, you realise you can't get to it as it's up a long flight of stairs and you broke your leg last week.

Fig. 2 - Stairs are inaccessible for many people.

The social model of disability and the medical model of disability are frameworks that address questions about disability and access in society such as these, and they present two very different answers to this question.¹

The medical model of disability

As suggested by its name, the medical model of disability looks at questions of disability and access from a medical point of view.

According to the medical model, 'impairment' and 'disability' are the same thing: if someone's mind or body is impaired to the extent that they are unable to function in society to the same extent as non-impaired people, their impairment is also considered a disability. Preventing or curing the impairment is therefore prioritised by the medical model to improve the impaired person's access to society.

The social model of disability

In contrast to the medical model of disability, the social model of disability looks at questions of disability and access from a social point of view. It critiques the medical model of disability and put forwards that a person is more disabled by social barriers than their body.

Because of this, 'impairment' and 'disability' are not the same thing according to the social model of disability:

• 'Impairment' refers to a personal bodily reality that affects the way that someone lives and interacts with the world around them, such as a visual impairment, chronic pain, or a broken leg.
• 'Disability' refers to the social barriers that affect the way that someone with an impairment lives and interacts with the world around them, such as ableism and an environment that has been built by and for people without impairments.

For the social model of disability, the term 'disabled people' not only refers to people with impairments but also to a social minority group that faces social oppression and must fight for equal human rights.

Pros and cons of the social model of disability

The social model of disability has been extremely influential within disability studies and the disability rights movement. The model gives activists a clear target to fight against (ableism in society) which is important for a political cause. By saying that inaccessibility is caused by society and not individuals' bodies, the model has also been effective in helping to build a positive sense of identity among disabled individuals and communities.

However, the social model has also been criticised, and some have argued that the social model:

• Doesn't take other factors of oppression, such as race, into enough consideration.
• Doesn't place enough focus on the medical perspectives of disability.
• Doesn't represent people who feel disabled by both their bodies and society.
• Places more focus on physically disabled people than mentally disabled people.

Critical disability theory has evolved to be self-reflective in order to address flaws such as these in disability studies and disability rights activism as well as to challenge ableism in society.

Disability theory in literature

It is not unusual to come across disabled characters when we are reading, and disability theory can be used to analyse how representations of disability in literature influence and are influenced by traditional ideas of disability and 'normal' bodies in society.

Many disability scholars believe that representations of disability in literature and other popular media rarely portray what life is actually like with a disability, and some argue that this has a negative impact on the real lives of disabled people.

For example, some famous disability scholars have argued that disability is often used as a plot device (something that increases interest and drives the plot forwards) by drawing attention to the differences between disability and what is considered 'normal' by society. This can be problematic as it reinforces ableist views that disability is 'abnormal' and can never be accepted as an ordinary presence in society.

Take the three examples from earlier in the article: Richard III in Shakespeare's Richard III, Tiny Tim in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, and Matt Murdock in Marvel's Daredevil:

• Richard III's deformities are linked to his villainous character. We can see similar portrayals of disability as a marker of villainy in many other popular characters such as Captain Hook in Disney's Peter Pan (1953), Captain Ahab in Herman Melville's Moby Dick (1851), and Mad-Eye Moody in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series (1997–2007).
• Tiny Tim is another famous example of disability representation. Tiny Tim is described as being sickly and holding a crutch. His disabilities mark him out as an innocent and pitiful victim of poverty and the initially mean protagonist Ebenezer Scrooge. We can see similar portrayals of disability as a marker of victimhood, innocence and pitifulness in other characters such as Boo Radley in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960).
• Matt Murdock is a Marvel superhero. Following an accident as a child when he loses his sight, he gains superhuman senses. His superhuman abilities granted to him by his disability mark him out as a supercrip, which is a term invented by disability scholars to describe someone who 'overcomes' their disability, often by achieving inspirational superhuman feats. Forrest Gump in the film Forrest Gump (1994) is also portrayed as a supercrip.

Disability theory books

Here are some disability theory books that you can use as a stepping stone to begin looking at literature and other media from a disability studies perspective.

The Disability Studies Reader (1997–)

If you want to get a broad overview of disability studies, theory, and the kinds of things that disability scholars are exploring, The Disability Studies Reader is a great place to start. Edited by Lennard J Davis, each edition contains many different articles written by various scholars on a multitude of topics, and you are bound to find something that piques your interest.

Narrative Prosthesis: Disability and the Dependencies of Discourse (2000)

In this famous disability theory text, David T Mitchell and Sharon L Snyder explain how disability has traditionally been used as a plot device in literature and bring in many examples to support their argument.

Bodyminds Reimagined: (Dis)ability, Race, and Gender in Black Women’s Speculative Fiction (2018)

This disability theory text by Sami Schalk analyses speculative literature (a broad genre of narratives that go beyond what we know as reality) from a disability studies and Black feminist perspective. Schalk looks at how the bodymind (the body and the mind together) is portrayed and 'reimagined' in speculative fiction by Black women authors.