Spanish Inquisition

Torture, terror, imprisonment. From 1478 to 1834, the Spanish Inquisition swept through Spain and extended its reach across Europe and the Americas. Designed to combat heresy, it also served to consolidate the monarchy’s power, contributed to foreign wars, and instilled fear in populations due to its infamously brutal methods.

Spanish Inquisition timeline

The Spanish Inquisition spanned almost 400 years, so it’s best to have an overview of the key events to understand its effects on Spain and across the world. The Spanish Inquisition’s focus transformed throughout the years, initially focusing its efforts on conversos (Jewish converts), then moriscos (Muslim converts), and later Protestants.

Background of the Spanish Inquisition

Whilst the Spanish Inquisition is arguably the most famous form of religious persecution of Europe, it was not the first of its kind. To understand the Spanish Inquisition, we must look at its predecessor as well as other inquisitions in Europe.

Fig. 1 -

May 21, 1558. Procession of about thirty Protestants sentenced to death by the Spanish Inquisition

The medieval Inquisition

In the twelfth century, the Roman Catholic Church developed the Inquisition to combat heresy, particularly within the Christian community. Countries like France and Italy used the inquisitions to focus on eradicating movements they considered heretical to Roman Catholicism, such as Catharism and the Waldensians.

These two movements were Christian but diverged from the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, hence were seen as heretical. At this time, the power of the monarchy was growing dramatically, and across Europe, these inquisitions were seen as a useful tool to control religion in their kingdoms and consolidate power.

The medieval Inquisition played a considerable role in Spain in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but lost traction throughout the years as the Catholic Monarchs focused on the Reconquista.

The reasons that led to the creation of the Spanish Inquisition

If there was already a medieval Inquisition, then why did Spain create their own? And why was it so infamous? To understand its origins, we need to take a look at the population of the Iberian Peninsula, how the monarchy’s role changed, and Spain’s approach to non-Catholics in the realm.

Convivencia

The Iberian Peninsula was home to Christian, Jewish, and Islamic populations living in what the historian Americo Castro coined as convivencia or co-existence, claiming they lived in relative peace. Although historians continue to debate whether this convivencia really existed, it is true that hostilities grew throughout the medieval period. Christians fought the Muslims (Moors) to try and reconquer old territories, and the Jewish population on the peninsula faced increased persecution, violence and killings.

During the Medieval period, anti-Semitism was rife across Europe and countries such as England and France expelled their Jewish populations in 1290 and 1306, respectively. In contrast, the Jewish population on the Iberian Peninsula remained the largest in Europe and many Jews held notable positions. Historian Henry C. Lee describes Jews as enjoying great ‘power in the courts of Kings, prelates and nobles, in Castile and Aragon’.¹

Conversos

In the late 1300s, however, the Iberian Peninsula saw some of Europe's worst antisemitism. Henry III of Castile and Leon (1390–1406) took the throne and began forcing Jews to convert to Christianity by offering baptism or death. In the Pogrom of 1391, antisemitic mobs flooded Spain’s streets and committed violence against the Jews. The pogrom began with the Spanish cleric Ferrand Martinez's agitation in Seville and quickly spread throughout Spain. Jewish populations in Castile, Aragon, and Valencia were attacked, their homes destroyed and many were murdered. Fearing for their lives, thousands accepted conversion to Christianity or attempted to escape the country. The pogrom was one of the largest attacks on Jews during the Middle Ages.

The Pogrom created a large population of Jews that had converted to Christianity known as conversos (convertees). Despite their decision, they still faced suspicion and persecution. Among conversos, there was likely a number of people who still continued to practice their faith in secret.

However, it is important to remember that the extent of this may have been exaggerated by antisemitic propaganda at the time. Known insultingly as marranos (the Spanish word for pigs), they were seen as a threat to the Catholic Church and social order and were denounced as a danger to Christian Spain after Ferdinand and Isabella (the Catholic Monarchs) married.

Fig. 2 - Massacre of Jews in Barcelona during the anti-Jewish riots of 1391

The Catholic Monarchs: religion

The Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, were key figures in the Spanish Inquisition. Although the system long outlived them, they established it and are associated with the religious fervour that led to their crusade-style mission against heresy.

Isabella and Ferdinand married in 1469, and Isabella was crowned Queen in 1474. She was pious (devoutly religious) in her beliefs, leading to her and Ferdinand being named the Catholic Monarchs. Concerned about religious unity, in 1478, the Catholic Monarchs conferred with Pope Sixtus IV about the threat of non-converters and he soon issued a papal bull. This allowed them to choose inquisitors to investigate religious issues, starting with Seville. A year later in 1483, Castile, Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia were placed under the power of the inquisition.

The Catholic Monarchs: power

When Isabella and Ferdinand came to the throne, Spain was divided (different kingdoms were run independently) and the financial situation was unstable. Isabella had overcome the War of Succession in 1474 to become Queen, but it was clear that she needed to establish herself as an authoritative leader to counter any future movements against her. The Spanish Inquisition not only controlled religion across Spain but also allowed the Catholic Monarchs to assert their dominance over formerly independently-run regions.

What was the Spanish Inquisition?

It is clear that the Spanish Inquisition was established to try and root out heretics and establish Christian uniformity, but what actually was the Spanish Inquisition and how did it work?

The Spanish Inquisition was a judicial institution (a system of courts) established to judge anyone suspected of heresy (suspects were often informed upon by neighbours or even friends and family). It consisted of an Inquisitor General and a Council of the Suprema. Six members from the Council would meet with the Inquisitor General every morning to discuss faith-related heresies and three afternoons a week to discuss minor offences such as bigamy.

There were fourteen tribunals that fed into the Suprema, and each of these had two inquisitors and a prosecutor. One of the inquisitors, known as the alguacil, was responsible for the jailing or torture of the defendant. When the Spanish Inquisition arrived in different areas, people were given a 30 to 40-day edict of grace to confess their heresies. Doing so within this period would lessen their punishment.

Torture and the Spanish Inquisition

Inquisitors used torture methods to extract confessions, most notably the rack or hanging somebody from the ceiling by their wrists. The accused were often tried in ceremonies known as autos-da-fé (Portuguese for expressions of faith). These ceremonies were grandiose affairs, designed to be watched and to send a message.

The condemned would receive different punishments, ranging from property confiscation or imprisonment to death sentences and being burnt at the stake. Corruption pervaded the Inquisition as inquisitors could profit from confiscation. Those accused were not subject to a fair trial.

Fig. 4 -An illustration showing the torture during the Spanish Inquisition

The effects of the Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition had lasting effects, not only for Spain but across the world. It targeted Jewish, Muslim and Protestant populations, as well as indigenous communities in the Americas. This led to horrific consequences for these communities and fostered resentment and dissent that evolved into uprisings.

The Spanish Inquisition at home

In Spain, the Inquisition helped the monarchy greatly increase their power and contributed towards a more homogeneous Spain. Protestantism was quickly eliminated from the country, whereas other countries engaged in long conflicts over religion. This essentially kept Spain largely conflict-free apart from some uprisings, although the Inquisition did involve itself in religious disputes elsewhere. The Inquisition is also credited with preventing the Witch Trials that took over countries like England between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries.

Economic effects

Financially, the Spanish Inquisition had fewer clear effects according to historian Henry Kamen.² Whilst the crown and inquisitors benefitted from property confiscations and imposing fines, the expulsions of Muslims and Jews left Spain with a deficit in their skilled workforce, which had negative effects on the economy.

The Spanish Inquisition in the Americas

The Spanish Inquisition spread to the Americas, where indigenous communities were forced to convert to Catholicism or face the consequences. These communities had their own culture and religion. Colonists were also targeted by the Spanish Inquisition.

The Eighty Years’ War and Dutch Independence

King Philip II's use of the Inquisition to quell Protestantism in the Netherlands caused dissent and anger about Spain's interference in internal affairs. Revolts over the harsh treatment of Protestants there led to a resistance movement, which evolved into the Eighty Years' War, fighting for Dutch independence. The rebels were eventually successful, resulting in Dutch independence from Spain in 1648.

In an exam context, you might get a question like this: To what extent was the Spanish Inquisition established for religious purposes?

When answering this question, you should consider the religious motivations of the Catholic Monarchs but also factor in any other reasons the Inquisition may have benefitted them. You will then conclude whith what you believe their motivations were. You might also want to think about how the Spanish Inquisition transformed throughout its implementation and whether that affected its goals. Here are some arguments you may want to include:

1. Henry C. Lee, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, Volume 1, 2017.

2. Henry Kamen, ‘Confiscations in the Economy of the Spanish Inquisition’, The Economic History Review, 1965.