American Isolationism

Isolationism was the foundation of America's foreign policy for much of the nineteenth century. It was characterised by American reluctance to get involved in the messy sphere of European politics and wars. But throughout the twentieth century, the America's policy of isolationism was constantly tested. By the end of the Second World War, the United States had all but abandoned American isolationism.

American Isolationism Definition

Isolationism is a policy where a country decides to not engage in the affairs of other nations. In practice, this involves a reluctance to enter into international agreements, including alliances, treaties, and trade deals. The origins of isolationism date back to the colonial period. Having been denied self-determination by European nations, it is easy to understand why America wanted to avoid involvement with these same nations when they were independent.

Although they formed an alliance with France during the American War of Independence (1775–83), this was quickly dissolved in 1793 by George Washington, who argued that:

Fig. 1 - Portrait of George Washington, the first President of the United States (30 April 1789 - 4 March 1797)

This impartiality was further consolidated in 1801 by President Thomas Jefferson, who said America should seek:

Fig. 2 - Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States (4 March 1801 - 4 March 1809)

American Isolationism Pros and Cons

Isolationism's main pro is that it enables a nation to devote all its efforts to its internal affairs. The cons of isolationism emerged as the US industrialised and found itself drawn into international events.

Examples of American Isolationism

The Monroe Doctrine was an example of American isolationism enunciated by President James Monroe in 1823. It stated the Old World and New World should be separate spheres of influence as they were fundamentally different.

This meant that the US would not interfere in the internal affairs of European nations or involve themselves in European conflicts. Whilst it recognised existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere, it announced that the Americas were closed to future European colonisation.

This did not, however, prevent the US from interfering in the affairs of nations in the Western Hemisphere. What started as protecting the Americas from European interference evolved into intervening in central and South American countries for the United States’ own interests.

American Isolationism Threats Nineteenth Century

Isolationism had broad support throughout the early nineteenth century but certain threats to isolationism soon emerged. For one, the US was undergoing industrialisation, which meant it needed foreign markets and raw materials, necessitating increased foreign involvement. The US began producing steamships, undersea communication cables, and radio, which decreased the impact of geographical isolation by linking America with other countries.

World events also challenged the policy of isolationism. After the 1898 Spanish–American War, the US bought the Philippines from Spain. War broke out in the Philippines and America occupied the country for almost 50 years. Expansionists supported these events but for isolationists, it was a severe blow to their ideology.

The occupation of the Philippines was especially significant considering it was generally regarded to be in Japan’s sphere of influence. Japan's military-industrial empire was growing at this point, as was that of Germany, which would come to further threaten American isolationism as these nations became increasingly aggressive.

American Isolationism First World War

President Woodrow Wilson was re-elected in 1916 on the basis that he had kept America out of the War. However, in April 1917 the US entered the War after Germany resumed submarine warfare on US ships. Wilson made the case that entering the War served the country's interests by maintaining peaceful world order and that the US should make the world ‘safe for democracy.’ He argued that this was supporting and applying the Monroe Doctrine to the world, saying ‘no nation should seek to extend its polity over any other nation or people.’

Fig. 3 - Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of the United States (4 March 1913 - 4 March 1921)

After being involved in a war that originated in Europe, the US policy of isolationism was abandoned. During the war, the US entered into binding alliances with Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, and Serbia. President Wilson’s Fourteen Points speech in 1918 expressed principles for world peace, which were key in peace negotiations at the end of the War. However, despite the heavy involvement of the US, they returned to a policy of isolationism immediately after the First World War.

American isolationism after the First World War

American isolationism after the First World War started by with ending all US commitments in Europe as soon as the war ended. The casualties which the US experienced during the War further supported returning to isolationism.

Significantly, the US Senate rejected the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which was drawn up to end the War and dismantle the German empire. The Treaty established the League of Nations, which was proposed in Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Precisely on this basis, that the US would have to join the League of Nations, the Senate rejected the Treaty and entered into separate peace treaties. The group of senators who opposed the treaty are known as the Irreconcilables.

Although they did not join the League of Nations, the US took some steps in foreign policy with the same goals as the League, including disarmament, preventing war, and protecting peace. Notable events included:

• The Dawes Plan of 1924, which provided a loan to Germany to pay their reparations to Britain and France, who would then pay off their US loans with the money.

• The Young Plan in 1929 reduced the overall amount of reparations Germany had to pay.

• The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 outlawed war as foreign policy and was signed by the US, France and 12 other nations.

• The Japanese invasion of Manchuria led to the Stimson Doctrine, which stated that the US would not recognise any territory gained by aggression and against international agreements.

In terms of domestic policy, the end of the First World War led to high tariffs on foreign goods in order to protect American businesses from foreign competition. Immigration was curbed with the introduction of Immigration Acts.

While the US did not completely return to isolationism, it focused on internal affairs. It only engaged in foreign affairs to limit the chance of another war, with the notable exception of the Dawes and the Young Plans.

American Isolationism Second World War

The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw a renewed commitment to isolationism. President Franklin Roosevelt (1933-45) put this into practice by introducing the Good Neighbour Policy in Latin America, which promoted hemispheric cooperation and led to a decline in US interference with other nations in the Americas.

Fig. 4 - Portrait of Franklin D Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States (4 March 1933 - 12 April 1945)

Despite this, President Roosevelt generally favoured a more active role for the US in international affairs. Attempts to act on this were however prevented by Congress which was heavily isolationist. In 1933, for example, Roosevelt proposed granting him the right to coordinate with other countries to put pressure on aggressive nations, but this was blocked.

American Isolationism Second World War The Neutrality Acts

With the rise of Nazi Germany, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts to prohibit US involvement in the war. Roosevelt opposed these restrictive Acts, but he conceded in order to maintain support for his domestic policies.

American Isolationism Second World War America First Committee

After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, aviator Charles A. Lindbergh formed the America First Committee (AFC) in 1940. This specifically aimed to keep the US out of the war. It was a popular organisation, with a membership that grew to over 800,000.

Lindbergh articulated the premise of the organisation as:

This isolationist group also opposed the Lend-lease plan introduced in 1941 by Roosevelt, which provided military aid to countries whose defence was integral to US security. Most of Congress supported this idea, but isolationists such as those in the American First Committee remained staunchly opposed.

The organisation was however short-lived as public opinion began to favour intervention in the War. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941 brought the US into the war and solidified public support. The America First Committee was disbanded. Lindbergh himself became supportive of their efforts during the War.

End of American Isolationism

The US entry into the Second World War signalled the end of its policy of isolationism. Throughout the War, the US was part of the Grand Alliance with Britain and the Soviet Union, which coordinated the War effort and began to plan post-War action.

After the War ended, the US helped to establish the United Nations in 1945 and became a charter member of the organisation, abandoning their previous aversion to such international cooperation. Policies such as the Truman Doctrine (1947) which promised US intervention to protect countries from communist takeover, and the Marshall Plan (1948) which gave aid to rebuild Europe after the War, saw an important role for the US in international relations post-Second World War.

The emergence of the Cold War came to be the most important factor for the US foreign policy in the years that followed. Foreign policy was now based on preventing the spread of communism –a policy known as US Containment – as opposed to isolationism.