Throughout the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation swept across the continent, splintering Roman Catholic Europe and transforming the region's religious, political, and cultural landscape. Such religious reform saw millions of European citizens abandon the Catholic Church and join newly-sprung Christian dominations. The Reformation decimated the Catholic Church's religious, political, and economic stranglehold of the continent, irreversibly transforming the future of Europe. Let's examine the Reformation in Europe and analyse the origins, key figures, and significant events.
The Reformation in Europe Summary
First, let's look at an overview of the European Reformation.
- The Reformation in Europe saw the establishment of Protestantism, one of the three primary divisions of Christianity, alongside previously established Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.
- It saw the readjustment of Christian fundamentals, dividing Europe between Catholicism and Protestantism.
- It was not solely a religious event. The Reformation transformed the social, cultural, economic, and political landscape of Europe.
The Reformation in Europe Timeline
Here is a brief timeline outlining the key events in the history of the Reformation in Europe.
| Date | Event |
| 1517 | Martin Luther wrote his 95 Theses – a document that denounced the corruption of the Catholic Church. |
| 1520 | Martin Luther wrote three articles: 'On the Freedom of Christian', 'On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church', and 'To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation'. In these works, Luther argued that the Pope did not have the authority to interpret the Bible. |
| 1521 | At the Diet of Worms, Martin Luther refused to recant the views he expressed in his 95 Theses and was consequently excommunicated. |
| 1522 | Martin Luther translated the New Testament of the Bible into German. |
| 1526 | William Tyndale translated the New Testament of the Bible into English. |
| 1529 | Martin Luther and Swiss Reformed Ulrich Zwingli met at the Colloquy of Marburg. Although agreeing on most theological points, they disagreed over holy communion. Zwingli argued that the bread and wine symbolised the body and blood of Jesus, whereas Luther believed Jesus' body and blood were present in the bread and wine. |
| 1530 | The Augsburg Confession composed the doctrine of Lutheranism. |
| 1531 | Ulrich Zwingli died during the Battle of Kappel. |
| 1533 | The English Reformation began when Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was nullified by the Archbishop of Canterbury. |
| 1534 | The Catholic Counter-Reformation saw regions in Germany, Poland, and Hungary revert to Catholicism. |
| Henry VIII became head of the Church of England. |
| 1545 - 1563 | The Council of Trent reformed the Catholic Church and refuted Protestantism. |
| 1546 | Martin Luther died. |
| 1555 | The Peace of Augsburg permitted Lutheranism within the Holy Roman Empire. |
| 1598 | French King Henry IV's Edict of Nantes granted religious equality to the Huguenots (French Protestants). |
| 1648 | Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and permitted Calvinists in the Holy Roman Empire. |
Reformation in Europe History
Historians date the start of the Reformation to 1517 when Martin Luther published his 95 Theses. The ending of the Reformation falls anywhere between the 1555 Peace of Augsburg and the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia. While the ideas of the Reformation were nothing unique, they required Reformation leaders such as Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli to articulate, mobilise, and disseminate them.
Fig. 1 The Ninety-Five Theses.
Reasons for The Reformation in Europe
There were several reasons for the Reformation in Europe; these include:
- Corruption in the Roman Catholic Church, specifically the sale of indulgences – the act of clergy receiving money in return for absolving sins.
- Many people wanted to be able to read the Bible in their native language rather than solely Latin; the invention of the Gutenberg Printing Press in 1450 allowed Bible translations to circulate more freely.
- Popular figures such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli demanded reform.
- An increasing reliance on the Bible for moral guidance instead of the teachings of the Church.
- The actions of rulers such as Henry VIII to split from the Roman Catholic Church.
- The increasingly popular belief that salvation came only from God rather than earthly deeds.
Fig. 2 Martin Luther.
Leader of the European Reformation
The European Reformation did not have one single leader but a series of different people who gained influence throughout the 16th century. Here is a table outlining key figures' contributions to the Reformation in Europe.
| Martin Luther | John Calvin | Ulrich Zwingli | William Tyndale |
| Born: | 10 November 1483 | 10 July 1509 | 1 January 1484 | 1494 |
| Died: | 18 February 1546 | 27 May 1564 | 11 October 1531 | 4 October 1536 |
| Nationality: | German | French | Swiss | English |
| Who were they? | German Protestant Leader | Protestant Leader in Geneva | Swiss Protestant Leader | English Protestant Leader |
| Reformation Contributions: | His 95 Theses criticised the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church and brought about the start of the Reformation. | His teachings stressed the importance of God's power and notions of predestination. | He taught that the Bible should be used as moral and ethical guidance in every aspect of day-to-day life. | He believed that commoners should be able to access the Word of God. |
The Reformation in Europe: Countries
After the publication of Martin Luther's 95 Theses, the Reformation swept across Europe, bringing widespread religious, political, and societal change. Let's have a look at how some specific countries were affected by the Reformation in Europe.
The Reformation in Germany
In 1517, Augustinian monk Martin Luther published his 95 Theses, a work that criticised the corruption within the Catholic Church. Among other things, Luther's 95 Theses criticised the Church's selling of indulgences, the practice whereby the clergy receive money in return for absolving one's sins. Refusing to recant his beliefs at the Diet of Worms, Luther was excommunicated in 1521.
Between 1517 and 1524, the Reformation movement grew within German cities. In 1524, the religious movement transformed into a political one. German peasants, inspired by the teachings of Luther, revolted in what has come to be known as the German Peasants War.
Indulgences
Selling indulgences was the clerical practice of forgiving sins in return for money.
The Reformation in Switzerland
The Reformation in Switzerland originated in 1519 with the thoughts of Huldrych Zwingli. Despite holding very similar views to Martin Luther, Zwingli argued that the bread and wine during Holy Communion symbolised the body and blood of Jesus, whereas Luther believed Jesus' body and blood were present in the bread and wine.
In 1541, John Calvin settled in Geneva. He put forth his religious views, which stressed the importance of God's power and notions of predestination. Calvin and Zwingli's successor, Heinrich Bullinger, united Calvinism and the Swiss Reformed church under the Helvetic Confessions in 1549. Calvin's views were disseminated in Scotland, Transylvania, France, and the Low Countries.
Holy Communion
The Christian Church's practice of commemorating Jesus' Last Supper by sharing in the body and blood of Christ.
Predestination
The belief that all wordly events have been pre-decided by God.
Fig. 3 John Calvin
Reformation in the Netherlands
Unlike the other Low Countries, the Reformation in the Netherlands was not instigated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces but rather by a series of popular reformist movements that took place throughout the 16th century. The Anabaptist movement proved popular in the early Reformation period. However, the Calvinist-influenced Dutch Reformed Church became the dominant Protestant religion by the mid-16th century. Throughout the 17th century, the conflict between the Gomarists and Arminians saw the Gomarist branch of Calvinism becoming the state religion.
The Gomarists and Arminians in the Netherlands
Throughout the 17th century, the Netherlands was engulfed in a fierce theological debate between the Gomarists (followers of Dutch Calvinist Franciscus Gomarus) and the Arminians or Remonstrants (followers of Jacobus Arminius).
The Gomarists and Arminians disagreed over predestination; Calvinists strictly believed in the notion whereas Arminians believed that predestination, by definition, made God the source of all evil.
In 1618, a church council known as the Synod of Dort was convened to settle the disputes between the Gomarists and Arminians. The Synod of Dort failed to settle the disagreements between the Gomarists and Arminians, and the latter was expelled from the council.
The Reformation in England
In 1531, Pope Clement VII refused to void Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Consequently, Henry stated that he should be the authority in charge of the Church of England. He proceeded to split England from the Catholic Church, disband the monasteries, and seize their wealth. This began the English Reformation.
Fig. 4 Catherine of Aragon.
The Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church was slow to respond to the Reformation's attitudes and figures. Eventually, between 1545 and 1563, the Council of Trent articulated a response to the Reformation. The reaction of the Catholic Church, known as the Counter-Reformation, saw the Catholic Church reform its practices and eliminate corrupt conventions.
Fig. 5 Council of Trent.
The Counter-Reformation saw many progressive reforms, such as the end of selling indulgences, the ascendency of the Jesuits, and the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which allowed religious freedoms for Lutherans and Calvinists in Europe. Despite some positive developments, there were several adverse effects of the Counter-Reformation. The Inquisition saw the imprisonment, torture, and execution of thousands believed to be heretics, and the Index of Forbidden Books saw the suppression of literature that didn't tow the Roman Catholic line.
Pros and Cons of the European Reformation
The Protestant Reformation brought about significant and lasting change. Here is a brief table outlining the pros and cons of the Reformation in Europe:
| Pros | Cons |
- Corruption within the Catholic Church – most notably the sale of indulgences – was outlawed.
- Protestant church services were conducted in the local language, and Bibles were translated into English, French, and German. This made Christianity more accessible.
- The Protestant Reformation led to the Catholic Counter-Reformation – a period of reform and revision within the Catholic Church.
- New Christian denominations such as Lutherans, Calvinists, and Baptists were founded.
- It curbed the power of the Pope and the clergy and placed scripture and faith at the centre of Christianity.
| - The war between the Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists killed some 8 million people. This event has come to be known as The Thirty Years' War (1618-1638).
- The Reformation saw the establishment of witch trials in Europe. Witch trials were most common in areas with strong Catholic-Protestant rivalry.
- In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church launched the Roman Inquisition. Throughout the Roman Inquisition, anywhere between 100,000 and 9,000,000 heretics were executed.
- The splintering of the Roman Catholic Church and increased denominationalism saw the end of Christendom and weakened the Church as a political institution.
|
The Reformation in Europe: Historiography
Traditionally, historians focussed their scholarship on the 'Reformation from above', asserting that it was nobles and princes – as well as the efforts of individuals such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, – that brought about the Reformation in Europe.
The traditionalist view – which remained prominent until the 1960s – has been contended by revisionists in recent decades. Revisionists believe that the Reformation was a joint effort between both nobles and peasants. This view is summed up by revisionist Ethan Shagan:
[The Reformation] was a dynamic process of engagement between the government and the people, leading to the greatest success of the English Reformation 1
The Reformation in Europe – Key takeaways
- The Reformation in Europe began in 1517 when Martin Luther published his 95 Theses.
- Factors such as corruption in the Catholic Church, citizens' wishes to read the Bible in their native language, and the increasing belief that salvation came only from God rather than earthly deeds led to the Reformation.
- Martin Luther, John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli, and William Tyndale were crucial figures in the Reformation in Europe.
- The Catholic Church responded with the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
- The Reformation saw Europe split between Catholicism and Protestantism.
References
- Ethan Shagan, Popular Politics and the English Reformation (2003), p. 25.
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