Seljuk Turks

It would be an understatement to say that the rise of the Seljuk Empire was dramatic. From a scattered nomadic people, mostly surviving from raiding, they went on to establish a dynasty that ruled a huge part of Central Asia and the Middle East. How did they do this?

Who were the Seljuk Turks?

The Seljuk Turks have a rich history despite their humble beginnings.

Origins

The Seljuk Turks originated from a group of Turkish nomads called the Oghuz Turks, who migrated from around the coasts of the Aral Sea. The Oghuz Turks were known in the Islamic world as violent raiders and mercenaries. After the 10th century, however, they migrated to Transoxiana and began making contact with Muslim merchants and they gradually adopted Sunni Islam as their official religion.

Map of Central Asia (former Transoxiana), commons.wikimedia.org

In the 1030s the Seljuk Turks became involved in conflict with a rival dynasty, the Ghaznavids, who also wanted to rule in Transoxiana. Seljuk’s grandsons, Tughril Beg and Chaghri, defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. After their victory, the Ghaznavids retreated from the region and Caliph al-Qa’im of the Abbasid dynasty sent Tughril an official recognition of Seljuk rule over Khurasan (modern-day eastern Iran) in 1046.

In 1048-49 the Seljuks made their first advance towards Byzantine territory when they attacked the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia, under Ibrahim Yinal, and clashed with Byzantine-Georgian forces in the Battle of Kapetrou on 10 September 1048. Despite the fact the Byzantine-Georgian army numbered 50,000 men, the Seljuks devastated them - needless to say, they did not conquer the region. Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas commented that the land had become ‘foul and unmanageable’.

In 1046, Chaghri moved east to the Iranian region of Kerman. His son Quavurt turned the region into a separate Seljuk sultanate in 1048. Tughril moved west to Iraq, where he targeted the power base of the Abbasid Sultanate in Baghdad.

The Great Seljuk Empire officially established

The establishment of the Seljuk Empire owes much to leader Tughril's skills and ambition.

Baghdad had already begun to decline before the arrival of Tughril as it was filled with internal strife between the Buyid Emirs and their ambitious officials. It was obvious to the Abbasids that Tughril’s forces were more powerful, so instead of fighting them off, they offered them a place in their empire.

Over time, Tughril climbed the ranks and eventually deposed the Buyid Emirs to decorative state figureheads. He also forced the Caliph to give him the title of King of West and East. In this way, Tughril elevated the power of the Seljuks as they were now considered an official sultanate and the secret power behind the Abbasid throne.

Image of Tughril, https://commons.wikimedia.org

Nonetheless, Tughril had to face several rebellions in Iraq. In 1055, he was commissioned by the Abbasid Caliph Al Qa’im to recapture Baghdad, which had been taken over by the Buyid Emirs. In 1058 a revolt was staged by the Turcoman forces under his foster brother Ibrahim Yinal. He crushed the rebellion in 1060 and strangled Ibrahim with his own hands. He then married the daughter of the Abbasid Caliph who, as a reward for his services, gave him the title of Sultan.

Tughril enforced orthodox Sunni Islam across the Great Seljuk Empire. The legitimacy of his empire rested on the approval of the Abbasid Caliphate which was Sunni. He had to protect the Sunni ideals of the caliphate to keep his power. He launched a holy war (jihad) against Shia sects such as the Fatimids and the Byzantines, who were considered unbelievers.

How did the Seljuk Empire interact with the Byzantine Empire?

As the Seljuk Empire expanded, it set its sights on, and inevitably clashed with, the Byzantine Empire.

How the Empire expanded

Tughril Beg died in 1063 but did not have an heir. His nephew, Alp Arslan (Chagri’s oldest son) took the throne. Arslan greatly expanded the empire by attacking Armenia and Georgia, both of which he conquered in 1064. In 1068, the Seljuk Empire and the Byzantines were experiencing increasingly hostile relations as Arslan’s vassal clans kept raiding Byzantine territory, namely Anatolia. This induced Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes to march further into Anatolia with his army, which was composed of Greeks, Slavs and Norman mercenaries.

Tensions reached a crescendo at the Battle of Manzikert near Lake Van (in modern-day Turkey) in 1071. The battle was a decisive victory for the Seljuks, who captured Romanos IV. This meant that the Byzantine Empire gave away its authority in Anatolia to the Seljuks. From 1077 they ruled over the whole of Anatolia.

The Seljuk army also clashed with the Georgians, who managed to hold Iberia. In 1073 the Amirs of Ganja, Dvin and Dmanisi invaded Georgia but were defeated by George II of Georgia. Nonetheless, a retaliatory strike by Amir Ahmad at Kvelistsikhe captured significant Georgian territory.

Organisation of Captured Territories

Arslan allowed his generals to carve out their own municipalities out of the formerly-held Anatolia. By 1080 the Seljuk Turks had established control as far as the Aegean Sea under numerous beyliks (governors).

The Empire under Malik Shah

Malik Shah would prove to be one of the greatest leaders of the Seljuk Empire and under him, it reached its territorial peak.

Territorial Peak

Arslan died in 1076, leaving his son Malik Shah heir to the throne. Under his leadership the Seljuk Empire reached its territorial peak, stretching from Syria to China. In 1076, Malik Shah I surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins. From 1079 onward, Georgia had to accept Malik-Shah as its leader and pay an annual tribute to him. The Abbasid Caliph named him Sultan of East and West in 1087 and his reign was thought of as the ‘Golden Age of Seljuk’.

Fracture begins

Despite the fact that the Empire reached its highest point during Malik’s reign, it was also the time when fracture became a prominent feature. Rebellion, and conflict with neighbouring nations weakened the Empire, which had become too large to maintain internal unity. Persecution of Shia Muslims led to the creation of a terrorist group called the Order of Assassins. In 1092, the Order of Assassins killed Vizier Nizam Al-Mulk, a blow that would only grow worse with the death of Malik Shah just a month later.

What was the significance of the Seljuk Empire?

Increasing division within the ranks of the Seljuk Empire would bring an end to its centuries-long rule.

The Seljuk Empire Divided

Malik Shah died in 1092 without assigning an heir. Consequently, his brother and four sons quarrelled over the right to rule. Eventually, Malik Shah was succeeded by Kilij Arslan I in Anatolia, who founded the Sultanate of Rum, in Syria by his brother Tutush I, in Persia (modern-day Iran) by his son Mahmud, in Baghdad by his son Muhammad I and in Khorasan by Ahmd Sanjar.

The First Crusade

The division created constant fighting and divided alliances within the Empire, which significantly decreased their power. When Tutush I died, his sons Rdwan and Duqaq both contested control of Syria, further dividing the region. As a result, when the First Crusade began (after Pope Urban’s call for a holy war in 1095) they were more concerned with maintaining their holdings in the Empire than fighting external threats.

• The First Crusade ended in 1099 and created four Crusader States out of formerly Slejuk-held territories. These were the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli.

The Second Crusade

Despite the fractures in the Empire, the Seljuks managed to recapture some of their lost territories. In 1144, Zenghi, ruler of Mosul, captured the County of Edessa. The crusaders attacked Damascus, a key power base for the Seljuk empire, by staging a siege in 1148.

In July, the crusaders gathered at Tiberias and marched towards Damascus. They numbered 50,000. They decided to attack from the West where orchards would provide them with a supply of food. They arrived at Darayya on 23rd July but were attacked the following day. The defenders of Damascus had asked for help from Saif ad-Din I of Mosul and Nur ad-Din of Aleppo, and he had personally led an attack against the crusaders.

The crusaders were pushed back away from the walls of Damascus, which left them vulnerable to ambush and guerrilla attacks. Morale was at an all-time low, and many crusaders refused to continue with the siege. This forced the leaders to retreat to Jerusalem.

Disintegration

The Seljuks would manage to fight off both the Third and Fourth Crusades. However, this was owed more to the crusaders themselves being divided rather than their own strength. Division increased with each new Sultan, and this put the Empire in a vulnerable position from attacks. Apart from the Third Crusade (1189-29) and the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), the Seljuks had to face continuous attacks from the Qara Khitans in 1141, which drained resources.

Tughril II, the empire’s last great Sultan, fell in battle against the Shah of the Khwarezm Empire. By the 13th century, the Empire had disintegrated into small regions ruled by various Beylicks (rulers of the Seljuk Empire’s provinces). The last Seljuk Sultan, Mesud II, died in 1308 without any real political power, leaving the various beyliks to fight with each other for control.