Russian Autocracy

Russian autocracy definition

In order to understand the key features of the Russian state, and compare it with other states, we will define some key terms below.

How was Russia governed?

In 1855, Russia was an autocracy ruled by the Tsar, who had the title 'Emperor and Autocrat of all Russia'. The Tsar was the head of the Orthodox Church and was considered by believers to be the earthly embodiment of God. Russians were taught to accept their condition on Earth as God's will. Church and state were closely linked. For example, a government minister known as the Over-Procurator of the Holy Synod was appointed to manage Church affairs.

The Tsar's imperial edicts were the law. While the Tsar had ministers and advisers, they were hand-picked by him.

How influential was the Orthodox Church?

Only 15% of Russians were literate, with the majority relying on the Church for theological and political instruction. The Church supported autocracy and taught that the Tsar was chosen by God. Russia was 'God's land' and any challenges to the status quo were an insult to God.

While the Church as an institution was a trusted authority, the serfs increasingly regarded their priests as corrupt.

What was the structure of the Russian government?

The Russian government was made up of several different bodies. Different groups had different responsibilities and powers. For example, the ministers of the Council of Ministers were responsible for entire departments, such as education, and had personal access to the Tsar. In contrast, the civil service was responsible for carrying out orders given by the government and had no personal access to the Tsar.

The main bodies of government were:

• The Imperial Council or Chancellery

35 to 60 nobles, picked by the Tsar to personally advise him.

• The Council of Ministers

8 to 14 ministers who led different government departments. Ministers were usually chosen from the mobility.

• The Senate

10 senators, usually of noble birth, who observed the government's workings. Although the Senate continued to exist, it had become practically redundant by 1855. This was because although it still supervised ministers, it rarely intervened in government affairs.

Fig. 2 - Russia's government structure - StudySmarter

How was the Russian Empire ruled?

The Tsar and central government were based in St Petersburg, the capital of Russia. The government relied on the provincial nobility for support. Nobles were expected to keep order on their estates and had a strong sense of obligation towards the Tsar.

The Russian bureaucracy was made up of paid noble officials, each holding 1 of 14 ranks. Each rank had its own uniform, form of address, and statues. Orders were passed down the bureaucracy from central government to provincial governors, then to district governors and town commandants. The bureaucracy was corrupt and incompetent. The Senate conducted very few reviews of government institutions, meaning officials could be bribed without punishment.

Changes in Russian autocracy in the 19th century

Russian autocracy changed in the 19th century as new Tsars brought with them different means of ruling and control.

Tsar Nicholas I

A military uprising against his rule in 1825 led Tsar Nicholas I to impose a repressive regime. Despite the spread of Western liberalism, which attracted Russian intellectuals, he led a strict autocracy and distanced Russia from the West. Under Nicholas, censorship increased, national minorities faced strict restrictions, and the Third Section (the secret police) was established.

Fig. 3 - Portrait of Tsar Nicholas I

To what extent was Russian autocracy a police state?

As defined earlier, a police state is one in which the government closely monitors and controls citizens' activities, especially by using secret police.

To maintain autocracy, Russia had developed into a police state. Many things were forbidden, including:

• Freedom of speech

• A free press

• International travel

• Political meetings

• Strikes

Censorship by the State and Church was enforced by the police. The secret state security network was run by the Third Section of the Imperial Council. Its agents had unlimited powers to raid, arrest, imprison or exile anyone suspected of 'anti-Tsarist behavior', such as criticism of the government. Agents used informers, ordinary Russians who were paid to report suspicious behaviour, and surveyed the population to identify suspects.

The Third Section was small, with just 40 agents in 1855. This meant its surveillance focused on the nobility and intelligentsia, rather than on workers. Its greatest success was creating an atmosphere of fear and paranoia. Russians knew that anyone could be spying on them. This made public criticism of Tsar Nicholas rare.

How powerful was the Russian army?

In 1855, Russia had the world's largest army. It included 1.5 million conscripted serfs, who had to serve for 25 years, and a smaller group of nobles, who bought and sold commissions in the higher ranks. Noble officers would lead soldiers into battle or, at the higher ranks, decide military strategy. 45% of the government's annual spending went towards the army and navy.

An elite group of mounted soldiers, the Cossacks, acted both as personal bodyguards to the Tsar and police reinforcements. Cossacks came from traditionally self-governing communities in the Ukraine and Southern Russia. They were highly skilled riders and enjoyed social privileges, such as exemption from taxation.

Fig. 4 1855 Painting of Ukranian Cossack Colonel

The collapse of Russian autocracy

By the 1900s, there was widespread discontent in Russia about Tsarist rule. In 1905, after what many saw as Russia's humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese war, this discontentment grew and led to the Revolution of 1905. This marked the first stage of the Tsar's autocratic rule crumbling. His powers were greatly limited by the Duma, an elected parliament.

Autocracy and the Russian Revolution

The Tsar's autocratic rule truly ended, however, after the Russian Revolution of February 1917 when the Tsar was forced to abdicate.