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Aggression in psychology refers to behaviours that could harm yourself, others, or could affect objects in the environment. This harm can be physical or psychological.
What would be some examples of aggression?
These usually include harming others or destroying the environment, such as breaking a door by punching it or throwing something.
But firstly, how would one even measure aggression in psychology? This can be done in several ways, mainly by counting how many times a person is aggressive in response to a stimulus or trigger and the intensity of the aggression on a scale/ratio.
Furthermore, the types of aggression causes are explored using both biological and psychological explanations. Is aggression down to our genetics? Or can our evolutionary background explain its origins? Or perhaps it's because of our environment and those around us. This article will ask the above questions whilst assessing the different theories behind the biological and psychological explanations of aggression, identifying key theories on the feelings of aggression and why they come about in the body and brain.
Specifically, we will cover neural and hormonal mechanisms, genetic origins of aggressions, ethological explanations of aggression, evolutionary explanations of aggression, social-psychological explanations of aggression, institutional theories of aggression, and media influences.
It is important to understand where aggression stems from and why it occurs, as, according to the World Health Organisation, in 2002 almost twice as many people died from interpersonal altercations than from being victims of war (World Health Organization & Krug, E., 2002, as cited in Popova, 2008).
Here, we consider the limbic system and the effects serotonin, testosterone, and cortisol have on aggression.
The limbic system plays an important role in regulating emotional behaviours and includes structures such as the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala. The amygdala is particularly important in aggression. When stimulated in animal studies, animals show more aggressive behaviours. When removed, however, they showed less or no aggressive behaviours.
The brain with the limbic system labelled, Wikimedia Commons.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter. It has widespread inhibitory effects on the brain. When considering aggression:
Normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) are correlated with greater self-control (inhibiting impulsive behaviour). Decreased levels of serotonin reduce self-control and may increase impulsivity. This is the serotonin deficiency hypothesis (decreased levels of serotonin causes a reduced inhibitory effect, affecting the OFC and causing more impulsive and aggressive behaviours).
Testosterone is an androgen, a hormone controlling the development of male characteristics. It is produced in the gonads (male testes and female ovaries) and the adrenal cortex.
It is suggested that testosterone is linked to aggression due to the correlation between men having higher levels of testosterone and committing more aggressive acts than women.
Cortisol is a stress hormone. Nearly every cell in the body has receptors for cortisol, so its effects vary. Usually, it aids in the body’s response to chronic stress, affecting the immune system, muscles, and so on. The Fearlessness Theory suggests stress induced by cortisol can inhibit aggression through fear.
Overall, the link between neural and hormonal mechanisms and aggression is correlational, not causal. It’s not completely clear whether hormones affect aggression, or if aggression causes stimulation in hormone production.
Aggression is affected by hormones and neurotransmitters. So, where genetics are concerned, genes play an important role in affecting the production of these components which, in turn, affects aggression.
According to Popova (2008), behaviours such as attacking, defending, and other aggressive traits that apply to both animals and humans are specifically related to serotonin as it has a role in the modulation of these behaviours. Namely, the functioning of a serotonin system relies on:
Synthesis (making) and appropriate degradation (scrubbing away) of serotonin. Serotonin uptake.
Serotonin 5-HT receptors/degradation.
Genes such as the PET-1 gene (covered in more detail elsewhere).
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA ; the warrior gene) gained notoriety in a 2006 study by Dr Rod Lea on New Zealand Māori men. It was suggested that those with the warrior gene exhibit higher levels of aggressive behaviours in response to provocation.
A section of chromosome X, showing the relative positions of MAOA and MAOB genes and mutations, Eccles et al.²
The MAOA gene codes for the production of the enzyme involved in breaking down neurotransmitters in the synapses between neurones. This is especially true for serotonin. When variants of this gene occur, it can result in lower production of the enzyme, causing neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse for longer, resulting in brain and behaviour dysfunction.
The warrior gene has been highly criticised for its unethical phrasing.
Bogaert et al. (2008) found that testosterone has high levels of heritability in males, suggesting they are under strong genetic control. Similarly, Harden et al. (2014) found that individual differences in testosterone were substantially heritable in adolescent males, whereas there was no genetic heritability variation of testosterone for adolescent females. According to Harris et al. (1998), in men, 60% of the variance in testosterone levels is heritable.
Considering the association certain hormones have on aggression, Gender may play a role in aggressive behaviour tendencies. The super-male hypothesis, established by Sandberg (1961) suggests the mutation of having the XYY chromosome in males would lead to more aggression.
Multiple studies indicate that gender does have some role in aggression. Rissman et al. (2006) found the Sry gene was associated with high levels of aggression in mice. This gene leads to the development of the gonads and high androgen levels in males. Lagerspetz et al. (1992) found that girls tended to be indirectly aggressive, and boys were equally as indirectly aggressive but more directly aggressive.
Genetic research receives criticism such as:
Having issues with reductionism
Being deterministic
Animal studies being compared to humans are not generalisable
DNA with sample, Flaticon
Aggression can be studied and explained by analysing non-human animal behaviours and comparing them to humans. Innate releasing mechanisms (IRM) and fixed action patterns (FAP) will be highlighted, including the Hydraulic model of instinctive behaviour (Lorenz, 1950).
Ethology is a comparative study of non-human animals in their natural environments (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2021).
Konrad Lorenz suggested that aggression in animals is innate, an instinctual process to help species maximise their resources (food, space, and other necessities). Fights within species occur till one backs down, not to the death, to avoid killing off their own species. This is why some animals growl or snarl as a warning first.
Innate releasing mechanisms (IRMs) are where animals have evolved to have a specific response to certain stimuli. The animals have a fixed action pattern when faced with a particular releasor so, in effect, an IRM is where a neural sensorimotor interface links and creates a response between a stimulus and the fixed action pattern (Ewert, 2013).
Fixed action patterns are an ethological term used to describe instinctive behaviours in a species, usually a reflexive action in response to a stressor. They’re said to be a result of innate releasing mechanisms and, once the action occurs, FAPs have to run their course. In other words, once they start, they cannot be stopped.
Lorenz first introduced the term in the 1950s when discussing the instinctive pressures and need for release, shared by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, concerning violence that occurs between members of the same species.
Lorenz suggests that all animals create a reservoir of pent up energy, known as Action Specific Energy. IRM’s trigger FAP, which releases this energy, and as a result, aggression levels lower until this reservoir is filled up again. Lorenz claims that this reservoir builds up because the present-day man cannot discharge his aggression.
Konrad Lorenz’s psychohydraulic model of drive/motivation/releasers and behaviour - Shyamal, Wikimedia Commons
Evolutionary explanations of aggression cite natural selection as a large part of why aggression has developed the way it has in humans. Therefore, aggression is an adaptive response that serves a purpose in both survival and reproduction.
Aggression is an adaptive response to the need to fight for survival and resources. If an animal's last piece of meat is being fought for by a competing animal, an aggressive act to secure it would increase each animal’s chance of survival if they choose to fight for it and win.
Inter-group aggression is where aggression occurs between two groups of the same species, known as 'ingroup' and ‘outgroup’ based on where the individuals identify themselves. It is essentially us vs. them. For example, a pride of lions sees another pride of lions, or in gangs in human behaviours. The behaviour the outgroup exhibits is undesirable to the ingroup.
Intra-group aggression occurs when members of an ingroup show aggression to each other, usually forming due to jealousy/rivalry, for instance, in a group of competing males the need to be the sexually dominant one.
Concerning evolutionary research into aggression, criticisms include:
Issues with reductionism
The evolutionary theories being deterministic
A lack of ethical considerations and issues with gender implications against women (as it justifies abuse)
Social-psychological explanation of aggression includes social learning theory, including reference to Bandura's study, the Bobo Doll Experiment, deindividuation, and the Frustration-Aggression Theory. Social-psychological explanations of aggression suggest children learn by observing others.
Social learning theory of aggression claims aggression is learnt through observation, imitation, and reinforcement (positive or negative, direct or vicarious).
The Bobo Doll experiment supported Bandura’s claims, as it showed that children can learn behaviours through observation alone. In contrast to the control group, the children exposed to aggressive behaviours tended to exhibit aggressive behaviours themselves as a result.
The deindividuation theory, proposed by Festinger et al. (1952), states that, if humans believe they can get away with doing aggressive behaviours, they will do so. Anonymity will increase this phenomenon. Fraser and Burchell (2001) define deindividuation as:
A process whereby normal constraints on behaviour are weakened as persons lose their sense of individuality.
The contagion theory is suggested to be the start of deindividuation.
The frustration-aggression theory states that frustration leads to aggressive behaviours, as frustration is a result of an inability to do a certain action or reach a certain goal. Due to this, a need to release this energy occurs and the frustration is released as aggression, sometimes to a source that isn’t the main cause of the frustration.
Institutional theories of aggression in the context of prisons involve the situational approach and the dispositional approach.
Prisoner behind bars, Flaticon
The situational approach (Sykes, 1958) is the idea that prisons make people more aggressive due to deprivation of their liberties, rather than the prisoners being at that level of aggression before being sentenced. The environment is the cause, in a sense.
This is where the manifestation of aggression is placed on the institution and organisation, focused on the hierarchy in place.
Milgram believed people were loyal to such hierarchies and would obey if necessary. Similar to this is the Stanford Prison Experiment, where Zimbardo (1971) found that those who were given the authoritative title of ‘Prison Guard’ became more aggressive towards those given the title of ‘Prisoner’, despite neither side earning the title officially. This is a dysfunctional power system in an institution inducing aggression in people.
This model focuses on the behaviour and beliefs of prisoners before they enter prison. Irwin and Cressey (1962) argued that prisoners were often violent and aggressive before prison and, therefore, naturally inclined to behave this way inside prison. This is known as the Importation Model. A prison is an aggressive place because the people there are aggressive.
Media use has risen considerably in recent years. As a result, some have hypothesised that this increase has caused issues with aggression.
The blame for aggression has often been pinned on different media sources. The common trend today is to target computer games, such as Call of Duty (a popular war game) and Grand Theft Auto (a popular game involving committing crimes).
Different theories support and disprove this idea. Learning Theories are referenced (i.e., Skinner, Anderson and Drill, Bandura), alongside the general aggression model and the neurological effects of playing violent games.
Media influences consider:
Studies suggest that individuals are can be affected by media especially if they are young and exposed to it before they learn what is socially acceptable. However, various studies may fail to acknowledge the field settings properly, e.g., are they experiencing violence at home due to abuse?
Overall, the study of media’s effect on violence is still in its early stage, and the concept needs to be explored more.
Finally, how does one reduce aggression in psychology?
Reducing aggression involves a person understanding the causes of their aggression and learning new responses and appropriate behaviours, rather than allowing the frustration to build and then explode itself into aggression. Therapies, talking it out, and self-control will help reduce aggression.
Similar to reducing aggression, controlling aggression involves self-awareness and knowing what can trigger aggressive behaviour, and learning how to give appropriate responses.
Aggression in psychology refers to behaviours that could harm yourself, others or could affect objects in the environment.
Reducing aggression involves a person understanding the causes of their aggression and learning new responses and appropriate behaviours, rather than allowing the frustration to build and then explode itself into aggression. Therapies, talking it out, and self-control will help reduce aggression.
This can be done in several ways, mainly by counting how many times a person is aggressive in response to a stimulus or trigger and the intensity of the aggression on a scale/ratio.
These usually include harming others or destroying the environment, such as breaking a door by punching it or throwing something.
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