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Theories and Methods

If you inherently believe that society is good, you will seek the positive aspects when studying society. If you inherently believe that society is bad, you are more likely to find the negative aspects wherever you look.

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Theories and Methods

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If you inherently believe that society is good, you will seek the positive aspects when studying society. If you inherently believe that society is bad, you are more likely to find the negative aspects wherever you look.

Believe it or not, such fundamental beliefs often inform how sociologists go about their study of society and how they create theories.

This article will give an overview of theories and methods, which is a key topic in sociology. A theory in sociology aims to explain social phenomena, societal structures, and why and how these are the way they are.

  • First, we will introduce the topic of theory and methods in sociology.
  • We will go over the three main paradigms in sociology.
  • Lastly, we will introduce the topic of research methods in sociology and outline the subtopics.

Let's get started.

Theory and methods in sociology

Throughout history, there have been numerous theories offering explanations for social phenomena. To understand them, we must first understand the paradigms in which they exist.

The paradigms in sociology are broad sets of beliefs and perspectives on the way things are. They seek to describe and explain human behaviour and society in the context of sociological theory. It is widely accepted that these are the main overarching paradigms in sociology.

Structural-functionalist paradigm

The structural-functionalist paradigm views society as largely stable and harmonious. A key sociological theory in this paradigm is Functionalism, which sees society as operating on a shared consensus of norms and values.

Functionalism states that through individuals' and institutions' roles and contributions, society can maintain social solidarity. Functionalism looks at macro, large-scale societal structures and processes.

Conflict paradigm

The conflict paradigm views society as unequal. It focuses on the types of inequalities resulting from social differences between a 'dominant' group and minority groups. The conflict paradigm considers societal structures and how they perpetuate racism, sexism, and social class inequalities.

Societal structures are created and upheld to maintain such inequalities at the expense of minority groups. The conflict paradigm also looks at macro, large-scale societal structures and processes. Examples of specific conflict theory approaches include the following:

  • Marxism: inequalities between the bourgeoisie (ruling capitalist class) and proletariat (the working class).
  • Feminism: inequalities between men and women.

Briefly, let's consider the theories of Marxism and Feminism.

Marxism: theory and methods in sociology

Marxist theory discusses the impact of the capitalist structure on all aspects of society, including:

  • education
  • family
  • crime
  • religion
  • The Media
  • stratification
  • and of course, labour!

In addition, Marxists do not trust information and data collected by institutions belonging to the bourgeoisie, as it is designed to uphold the capitalist structure. Therefore, Marxists do not trust Official Statistics collected by the government, as the government is part of the bourgeoisie.

Feminism: theory and methods in sociology

Feminist theory discusses the impact of the patriarchy on all aspects of society, including:

Feminists often claim that not all research methods are reliable, as many studies and Experiments have been carried out by men and with male subjects. As such, sociologists should ensure that they have conducted research methods in a representative manner.

Symbolic interactionist paradigm

The symbolic interactionist paradigm views society as made up of the interactions between individuals in small groups. Unlike the structural-functionalist and conflict paradigms, this paradigm looks at micro, small-scale processes and systems, especially how humans interact with each other.

A key sociological theory within this paradigm is interactionism. The paradigm states that the way we interact with others is due to the meanings given to cultural symbols. Cultural symbols exist in language, media, education, stereotypes, and belief systems. Symbolic interactionists are interested in how individuals interpret these cultural symbols and how they impact our interactions with each other.

Social action theory is also a key theory. It sees society as a construction of interactions and meanings produced by its members. The theory states that social behaviour should be considered through its 'level of cause' and 'level of meaning'.

Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a sociological theory and intellectual movement that seeks to understand society beyond the traditional metanarratives.

Difference between theory and method

In sociology, you will be learning not only about which theories exist, but how data to form such theories is collected. As such, it is important to understand the what (theory) and the how (method). Consider the example below.

A sociologist theorises that in private schools, children from upper social classes are treated better by teachers than children from lower social classes (e.g. those with scholarships to attend). However, the sociologist must provide some form of data that proves or disproves their theory.

This is where their method(s) is/are relevant - how will they try to prove this?

Whilst theory and methods are taught together, you should understand that they have their own 'halves'. However, both halves form together to create a sturdy understanding of sociology.

Example: education with theory and methods

Let's look at the relationship between theory and methods in a popular area of sociological study - education.

Researchers examine the characteristics of their research population and sample; this gives them an understanding of how different groups might respond to being researched and how to conduct research in diverse settings. They study patterns, events and their development, within the context of education, and investigate people’s experiences of the Education System.

Within this, researchers must be aware of the different practical, theoretical, and ethical issues they might encounter when conducting research into Education With Methods in Context, and how characteristics such as social class, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and gender intersect with each other.

You will be studying this and more in 'Education With Methods in Context'!

Research methods in sociology

The other 'half' of the topic of theories and methods is research methods. Research methods in sociology are used by sociologists to collect, analyse, and interpret data about society. A large variety of research methods are used depending on the type of research being conducted.

Below are overviews of some concepts used to consider which research method (s) may be appropriate (for more detailed information on any of the following headings, please refer to Sociological Methods).

Theories and Methods, Magnifying glass on city skyline, StudySmarterFig. 1 - Research methods help us understand humans and society.

Types of data

Below are some Types of Data collected by sociologists during social research.

  • Quantitative data is numerical data, such as statistics.
  • Qualitative data is descriptive data, such as interview answers or documentation.
  • Primary data is data collected first-hand by the researcher, such as creating a tailored survey and analysing the responses gathered.
  • Secondary data is data collected from another source of data, such as other researchers or the government. Examples include a meta-analysis or official government statistics.

Positivism

Positivism is the belief that sociologists should use quantitative research methods to study society and social phenomena. Positivists believe society shapes individuals, and exercises control over them with norms and values.

Positivists believe that society has 'laws' and objective realities just like the natural sciences (such as the laws of physics). For this reason, Positivism encourages the use of quantitative research methods to discover such 'laws'.

Interpretivism

Interpretivism is the belief that sociologists should use qualitative research methods to study society and social phenomena. Interpretivists believe individuals shape society and interact with their own perceptions of society. They do not believe that society has objective realities, as society is perceived differently by each complex individual.

Interacting closely with individuals is important for Interpretivism as this can help them understand people's motivations and actions at a deeper level. For this reason, interpretivism encourages the use of qualitative research methods.

Research design

Research Design is the consideration of how to go about conducting research. Sociologists need Research Design to understand what they are trying to study and how they will study it. They first come up with a research question, form a hypothesis, and develop an operational definition.

An operational definition helps the researcher to observe or measure the concept they are trying to study. This should be a reliable or standardised form of measurement.

Research considerations

Research considerations are an integral part of sociological research. Thought must be given to a variety of factors, including funding for the study, time taken to conduct the study (this is especially important in longitudinal studies, where researchers may have to wait years for results), research methods, and ethical issues (see Research Considerations for a deeper understanding of these issues).

Theories and Methods, Colourful sticky notes on whiteboard, StudySmarterFig. 2 - Sociologists must take several factors into consideration before starting research.

Values in research

Sociologists must consider the impact of their own Values in Research. In particular, they should not allow their own opinions or beliefs to influence the research in any way. Some sociologists, such as positivists, consider objectivity as a priority for research to uncover societal 'laws'.

Others, such as interpretivists, believe some subjectivity from the research subjects is necessary.

However, it is widely accepted that sociologists, as researchers, should keep their own values and judgments out of the research and their subjects. They must simply conduct the research. Some values that may affect sociologists' research are:

  • Choice of topic.
  • Choice of research method.
  • Result analysis.

Theories and Methods - Key takeaways

  • Theories in sociology aim to explain social phenomena, societal structures, and why they are the way they are.
  • Paradigms are broad perspectives within which Sociological Theories exist. The three main paradigms in sociology are the structural-functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist paradigms.
  • The structural-functionalist and conflict paradigms are concerned with macro, large-scale societal structures whereas the symbolic interactionist paradigm is more interested in micro, small-scale interactions between individuals.
  • Research methods are used by sociologists to collect, analyse, and interpret data about society. Researchers have to consider many factors before doing research, such as what they want to find out, what type of data they want to collect, and how they will collect it.
  • Research considerations must be thought through, including costs, time and ethical issues.

Frequently Asked Questions about Theories and Methods

Sociology is a science according to some sociologists, who think that society has objective 'laws' just like the natural sciences. They claim such 'laws' should be discovered using positivist research methods. They are interested in patterns, correlations, and statistics. However, other sociologists, such as interpretivists, do not think sociology is a science. They believe that sociologists need to understand meanings and interactions, not patterns.

Sociological theories and method studies evaluate the various sociological theories which explain how society operates. The topic also studies research methods used by sociologists to collect data about society.

The relationship between theory and method can be described in the following way: the theory proposes a fact, issue or explanation, and the method is a way to prove or disprove the theory.

In sociology, there are many types of research methods, including quantitative (e.g. experiments, official statistics) and qualitative (e.g. unstructured interviews, documents).

Final Theories and Methods Quiz

Theories and Methods Quiz - Teste dein Wissen

Question

What factors contribute to the context of sociological research?


Show answer

Answer

Factors contributing to the context of sociological research include:

  • the way researchers perceive the nature of the social phenomena, 
  • pre-existing literature, 
  • the inductive versus the deductive approach to developing theory,  
  • the research quality standards and rules.


Show question

Question

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?


Show answer

Answer

The difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is in the way researchers approach theory development. 

  • The inductive approach seeks to develop new theories. 
  • The deductive approach aims to test existing ones.

Show question

Question

Do researchers need to use existing literature?

Show answer

Answer

Yes, they do. They need to familiarise themselves with what other researchers have already said and done to build upon it.

Show question

Question

Are researchers subject to any research quality standards?

Show answer

Answer

Yes, they should ensure the utmost research integrity and obey ethical standards.

Show question

Question

What are the different types of research methods?


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Answer

  • Primary or secondary research
  • Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods

Show question

Question

What are the different types of data in research methods?

Show answer

Answer

Researchers collect primary and secondary data. Using primary data involves using data collected by the researcher first-hand, whilst using secondary data means using someone else's research outputs. Data can also be of quantitative and qualitative nature.

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Question

What is operationalisation?


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Answer

Operationalization is the process of transforming concepts into measurable units by adopting an indicator or a proxy. For example, researchers can measure performance by using standardised test results.


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Question

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?

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Answer

Quantitative data represents social phenomena in numerical, statistical or analytical terms, while qualitative data describes phenomena in other ways (such as visually, verbally or in writing).

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Question

What is a 'mixed methods' approach? 


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Answer

The mixed methods approach combines qualitative and quantitative methods in pursuit of a more detailed picture of a social phenomenon.

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What is triangulation?


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Answer

Triangulation is a technique that facilitates the validation of data through cross-verification from two or more sources.


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Question

What is methodological pluralism?


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Answer

Methodological pluralism involves adopting the use of a variety of sources due to believing that no single research approach is superior to another.


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Question

What are the advantages of using primary data?


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Answer

1) Collected first-hand, no need to rely on another sociologist's figures.

2) It is the most up-to-date data.

3) Can present unexpected findings and steer the research in a new direction.

4) Data collected is unique to the specific research project.

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Question

What are the disadvantages of using primary data?


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Answer

1) Some primary methods can be expensive, time-consuming, or even dangerous (eg conducting ethnographic research in a cannibalistic tribe).

2) Can be unethical if you do not have informed consent from the participants (eg cover observations).

3) Researchers' own values may bias the process.

4) The group you may be interested to study may not be accessible (eg too far away or may not want to participate)

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Question

What are the advantages of using secondary data?


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Answer

1) Easy access to data, e.g. ONS website.

2) No need to seek informed consent.

3) Your values will not influence the data as it was collected by someone else.

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Question

What are the disadvantages of using secondary data?

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Answer

  • If the data is unreliable, ungeneralisable or invalid, you may need to search for alternative sources.
  • Documents (such as old paintings or archive documents) may not be authentic or credible.
  • Official statistics may have a bias.
  • The data you need may not be available in the format that you require.

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Question

What is Marxism?


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Answer

Marxism is a conflict theory that believes capitalist society is based on inequalities between the bourgeoisie (ruling capitalist class) and proletariat (working class).

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Question

According to Marxism, what is the most important part of society?

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Answer

The economy is the most important part of society. Whoever is in control of the economy is in control of society.

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Question

 What does the bourgeoisie own?


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Answer

The bourgeoisie has ownership of the means of production and relations of production.

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What is the role of the superstructure in ideological control?

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The superstructure reproduces bourgeoisie ideas and values, which helps to maintain the status quo and uphold the capitalist agenda.

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What is meant by false class consciousness?

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Answer

False class consciousness is the delusion held by the proletariat that its living and working conditions are normal.

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According to Marx, what needs to occur before the overthrow of capitalism?

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Answer

Before the overthrow of capitalism, the proletariat must become aware of its exploitation. 

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Question

What was Gramsci's view of false class consciousness?

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Answer

Gramsci disagreed with Marx's idea that the proletariat does not know of its exploitation. He claimed the proletariat has dual consciousness, which means it is aware of its exploitation.

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What is a counter-hegemony?

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Answer

A counter-hegemony is the formation of ideas and values that oppose bourgeoisie ideology. According to Gramsci, a counter-hegemony is necessary to overthrow capitalism.

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What are the levels of control in capitalist society as claimed by Althusser?

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The levels of control are the economic, political and ideological levels.

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According to Althusser, how could a communist society form and is this different from what Marx suggested?

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Answer

Althusser claimed a communist society could form after the capitalist structure collapses, especially after a crisis. This is different from Marx's suggestion, as Marx stated that the proletariat could form a communist society after gaining consciousness of its exploitation.

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Question

What does feminism in sociology study?

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Answer

Feminism in sociology studies the theory that society is based on inequalities between men and women. It is a conflict theory and has many different branches of feminism.

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Question

According to feminist theory, what is the reason for gender inequality in society?


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Answer

The reason for gender inequality in society is the patriarchal structure of society. Feminists claim that society has been built by and for men at the expense of women. This leads to gender inequality as men have more power and status in society than women.

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Question

How do liberal feminists seek to achieve change?


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Answer

Liberal feminists seek to use legal means to achieve change, namely through legislation and changes in the public spheres. An example of a liberal feminist achievement is the Equal Pay Act (1970) in the UK.

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What is a criticism of liberal feminism?


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Answer

 A criticism of liberal feminism is that it is an ethnocentric movement that does not consider different forms of oppression faced by women around the world. Another criticism is that legal changes do not ensure gender equality because there are still gender pay gaps despite equal pay laws.

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Question

The main reason for patriarchy is the capitalist structure, which requires the exploitation of women to maintain the capitalist agenda. This view is put forward by...

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Answer

Marxist feminists.

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Question

What is a strength of Marxist feminism?


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Answer

Any of the following options are acceptable answers:

  • Marxist feminism recognises the impact of social class on gender inequality. 
  • It recognises that the oppression of women is unnatural.
  • As the oppression of women started in capitalist societies, it can be traced back to those points in history.
  • Marxist feminism rejects biological determinist arguments, e.g., that men are in control because they are inherently smarter than women.

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Question

According to radical feminism, what is the 'triple shift'?


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Answer

According to radical feminists, the 'triple shift' refers to the triple burden placed on women. The 'triple shift' claims that women have to carry out paid work, domestic work and emotional labour to take care of their husbands and children.

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Why do radical feminists not see the ability for women to do paid work as liberating?

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Answer

They argue that women now carry out a dual burden of paid work and domestic work, which continues to be primarily carried out by women. In this way, men benefit from women's unpaid labour.

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Apart from the critique that radical feminism ignores progress and achievements made by women, what are the weaknesses of radical feminism?


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Answer

The other weaknesses of radical feminism include the assumption that all women believe they are oppressed. Some women are complicit in their own oppression, which suggests not all women see the system as patriarchal. In addition, separating the two sexes is seen as unrealistic and extreme.

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Question

How does postmodern feminism differ from other branches of feminism?


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Answer

Postmodern feminism differs from other branches of feminism in that it seeks to address differences in the oppression of women around the world. It takes into account race, culture, and sexuality as intersecting with patriarchy.

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What does a sociological theory aim to do?

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Answer

A sociological theory aims to explain social phenomena, societal structures, and how and why they are the way they are.

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Question

What are two theories falling under the conflict paradigm?


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Answer

Two theories falling under the conflict paradigm are the theories of Marxism and feminism.

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Question

How does the symbolic interactionist paradigm differ from the structural-functionalist and conflict paradigms?


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Answer

The symbolic interactionist paradigm differs from the structural-functionalist and conflict paradigms because it is interested in small-scale interactions between individuals and the meanings given to such interactions. In comparison, the structural-functionalist and conflict paradigms are interested in large-scale societal structures and processes.

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Question

Which TWO of the following types of data are not primary data?

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Answer

Government statistics on education policies.

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Question

What is positivism?


Show answer

Answer

Positivism is the belief that sociologists should use quantitative research methods to study society and social phenomena. This is because positivists believe society has 'laws' and objective realities.

Show question

Question

What is interpretivism?


Show answer

Answer

Interpretivism is the belief that sociologists should use qualitative research methods to study society and social phenomena. This is because interpretivists believe individuals shape society and interact with their own perceptions of society. Therefore, gaining a deeper understanding of such perceptions is how we can best study society.

Show question

Question

What are important research considerations for sociologists before undertaking research?


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Answer

Important research considerations for sociologists before undertaking research are time, costs, research methods, and ethical issues.

Show question

Question

Why does a sociologist need to keep their own values ​​out of research?


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Answer

Sociologist needs to keep their own values ​​out of research because these may influence the research. If the research is influenced, the findings may not be reliable or valid.

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Question

What are sociological theories?


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Answer

Sociological theories are ideas and explanations about how societies operate and change. They aim to explain why societies work the way they do. 

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Question

What do functionalists compare society to?


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Answer

Functionalists compare society to a human body, in that every organ has its own purpose and they are all needed for a functioning society.

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Question

What feature of the societal structure do Marxists deem the most important and why?


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Answer

The most important feature of the societal structure is the economy because all other institutions are based on it. Therefore, whoever controls the economy controls society.

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Question

What does feminism claim is the root cause of gender inequality in society?


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Answer

Feminism claims the patriarchal structure of society creates gender inequality due to the inherent favouritism and bias towards men.

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What is different about the way interactionism sees society in comparison to other sociological theories?


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Answer

Interactionism looks at small-scale interactions between people rather than theorising society on larger scales. It believes that our daily interactions help us shape society.

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Question

Which one of these may NOT be a result of a postmodernist society?

a. Believing that our identity is complex.

b. Incorporating diversity and global influences in the workplace.

c. Engaging in organised religious practices.

d. Considering the human impact on the environment.

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Answer

Option C is unlikely to be a result of postmodern society. While many still participate in organised religious practices, postmodernists argue that individuals are much more likely to 'pick and mix' from different religions and their practices.

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Question

What kind of theory is functionalism?

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Answer

Functionalism is a structural consensus theory.

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Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

Do researchers need to use existing literature?

Are researchers subject to any research quality standards?

The main reason for patriarchy is the capitalist structure, which requires the exploitation of women to maintain the capitalist agenda. This view is put forward by...

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What factors contribute to the context of sociological research?


Factors contributing to the context of sociological research include:

  • the way researchers perceive the nature of the social phenomena, 
  • pre-existing literature, 
  • the inductive versus the deductive approach to developing theory,  
  • the research quality standards and rules.


What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?


The difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is in the way researchers approach theory development. 

  • The inductive approach seeks to develop new theories. 
  • The deductive approach aims to test existing ones.

Do researchers need to use existing literature?

Yes, they do. They need to familiarise themselves with what other researchers have already said and done to build upon it.

Are researchers subject to any research quality standards?

Yes, they should ensure the utmost research integrity and obey ethical standards.

What are the different types of research methods?


  • Primary or secondary research
  • Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods

What are the different types of data in research methods?

Researchers collect primary and secondary data. Using primary data involves using data collected by the researcher first-hand, whilst using secondary data means using someone else's research outputs. Data can also be of quantitative and qualitative nature.

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