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The word 'religion' is familiar to us all. But what do we mean when we use it?
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Jetzt kostenlos anmeldenThe word 'religion' is familiar to us all. But what do we mean when we use it?
The discipline of sociology of religion is considering different beliefs in society.
To kick off this topic, we will first look at the definition of religion.
Religion is a set of beliefs. Commonly, these beliefs explain the cause and purpose of the universe and include a moral code intended to guide human conduct. Religion does not have a universal definition, but one of its distinguishing features is that it is faith-based.
There are three sociological approaches to defining religion.
Substantive definitions focus on the content of religious beliefs. For example, Max Weber viewed religion as a belief in a supernatural or higher power that cannot be explained by science.
Functional approaches define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals and society. Émile Durkheim described religion according to the shared social bonds it creates between members.
These approaches aim to understand how a set of beliefs comes to exist and is adopted by individuals.
Science differs from religion because it is an open belief system based on direct observation rather than faith.
Unlike religion, science is open to scrutiny and evolves as new knowledge is gained. This process is known as falsification: scientists attempt to disprove theories, and then pursue proven explanations based on empirical evidence.
Fig. 1 - Science is an open belief system based on direct observation and experiment rather than faith.
Ideology is a world-view, or set of ideas and values.
Often, ‘ideology’ is referred to in political terms. Socialism, nationalism and liberalism are examples of ideologies that represent general political beliefs. Ideology can also refer to a set of dominant or official beliefs within a political system, such as Nazism in Hitler’s Germany, or communism in the USSR.
Ideology has also taken on meanings within sociology, such as a set of beliefs that are used to justify the position of certain groups in society, or as self-sustaining belief systems that are irrational and closed to criticism.
Ideology is similar to religion from the functionalist perspective, as it provides a lens or set of beliefs through which certain groups view the world.
Nationalism is a political ideology that views nations as distinct communities and promotes the idea that national loyalty should be prioritised over all other loyalties.
From the functionalist perspective, nationalism can be viewed as a secular civil religion because it unites individuals into a national community.
Theorists explain the nature of religion and its relationship to society in different ways. Exploring a variety of perspectives and Sociological Theories of Religion helps to evaluate the role of religion within society.
Some sociological perspectives view religion as a force for social change, while others see it as key to maintaining the status quo.
Religion is often seen as a conservative force, as it upholds traditional beliefs about how society ought to be. It also functions to maintain things the way that they already are. The view of religion as a force that preserves the status quo is shared by Marxists, feminists, and functionalists. While each perspective defines the role of religion differently, all view religion as something that aids in stabilising society.
Functionalists see religion as promoting social solidarity through consensus building, as religion reduces the likelihood that individuals will pursue their own self-interest at the expense of others. Marxists and feminists see religion as an ideological tool that supports the existing order of society and stabilises the interests of powerful groups.
Marxists do not have a purely negative view of religion. Religion can have a dual character, some Marxists hold; it can be a force for social change by helping individuals see what needs to be changed in the world.
From the perspective of Max Weber, William Bainbridge, and Rodney Stark, religion is more than a conservative force. It can cause social change. Weber argues that the social norms developed by Protestant faiths such as Calvinism contributed to the framework for modern capitalism; in Calvinism, individual wealth was viewed as God’s reward for hard work.
Steve Bruce believes that the Civil Rights movement in the USA was inspired by religion. The church provided a meeting place and sanctuary from white violence, while religious hymns and beliefs in religious tenets united a group of people and enabled them to overcome oppression.
Religious organisations include churches, denominations, sects, cults, New Age Movements, and new Religious Movements.
Churches can span the globe and exhibit a hierarchical structure with professional clergy. The Roman Catholic Church is an example of this.
Denominations are smaller than churches and have a professional clergy, but typically rely on members for active involvement. Pentecostalism is an example.
Sects are often led by an individual who claims to be chosen by a higher power and commonly demand total dedication from members, e.g. ISIS.
Cults have small memberships, aim to attract those seeking spiritual fulfilment, and solicit specific actions from members, e.g. Scientology.
New Age Movements cover a range of beliefs, and most lack a hierarchical structure, focusing instead on self-spirituality, e.g. Reiki.
The number of New Religious Movements (NRMs) has skyrocketed since the 1960s. Many are classified as sects and cults, but Roy Wallis also created a framework that distinguishes NRMs based on the nature of their beliefs as world-affirming, world-accommodating, and world-rejecting.
Religion participation varies significantly across gender, ethnicity, age, and social class.
Women are more likely to express interest in religion, as they are more likely to experience poverty and marginalisation.
Ethnic minorities make up a greater representation of churchgoers, due to religion’s role in cultural defence and cultural transition.
The current elderly generation tends to use religion as a source of security, while younger individuals find religious teachings less relatable to their lives.
Religious participation is highest among deprived classes. It helps them cope with poverty and oppression.
There are a number of detailed articles on religion and social class, gender, ethnicity, and age on StudySmarter!
Secularisation is the declining significance of religion within society.
According to Bruce, secularisation manifests within institutions, in the social standing of religious roles, and in the extent to which people conduct their lives in a way informed by religious beliefs.
Let's look at a few ways in which sociologists have explained the growth of secularisation.
Weber attributes secularisation to the processes of rationalisation. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, in which the Protestants first split from the Roman Catholic Church, brought about a new rational world-view. God created the world but then left it to run according to its own laws of nature.
Similarly, the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century inspired individuals to seek more rational explanations for phenomena, rather than citing divine and supernatural causes.
According to Peter Berger, the decline of religion is driven by the increased diversity of religious organisations and interpretations of the faith. A shift in western culture away from religious duty and submission to authority, towards exploring individual interpretations of spirituality, has caused traditional religions to decline.
Religious market theorists, on the other hand, argue that a diversity of religious beliefs does not necessarily spell the decline of religion within a society. Though traditional religion is on an overall decline, the diversity of Christian faiths in the United States, and the emergence of NRMs across the world, have increased the number of religious and spiritual options available to individuals.
Check out Secularisation for more information.
According to a British Social Attitudes survey conducted in 2017, the proportion of the British population who describe themselves as having 'no religion' was 53 percent, the highest ever recorded so far. One reason for this is the increased liberalisation around social issues such as same-sex relationships and abortion.
Religiosity in the USA has also followed a trend of long-term decline, but the diversity of Christian denominations in the USA means that some churches are more successful compared to others.
Bruce explains secularisation in the USA as happening from within. Churches themselves have become less religious, as individual practitioners transitioned away from seeking salvation and glorifying God, to using religion as a form of personal therapy.
Globalisation has allowed individuals to express religious beliefs and practice faith separate from national identity. It has also accelerated the spread of certain religious organisations.
This can be seen in the spread of Pentecostalism across The Developing World. According to Berger, Pentecostalism appeals to poorer individuals, supports voluntary membership, and incorporates local beliefs in its teachings.
In Chile and southern Brazil, there is a growing Pentecostalist middle class that promotes grassroots development through personal religious discipline, known as asceticism.
Sobriety, hard work, saving money, and the discouragement of extra-marital affairs and gambling, have increased the standards of living for those who have adopted Pentecostalism while countering 'machismo' culture.
As globalisation exposes individuals to different religions, it can undermine the authority of belief systems that claim to be the one true faith.
Economic globalisation also increases rationalisation, which can undermine the overall significance of religion within a society. One exception is the case of Hinduism in India. Many Indians believe that Hindu values have stimulated the Indian economy and led to success in the global market.
This is a form of religion that upholds strict beliefs and a literal interpretation of scripture. Fundamentalism emerges in societies where modernity threatens traditional values or beliefs. In response, individuals take steps to defend their traditions against outside influence.
Giddens and Davie theorise that fundamentalism is a product of and response to globalisation. This is because the processes of globalisation can undermine traditional social norms relating to family, gender, and sexuality.
A common enemy that can be united against, such as the USA in the case of fundamentalist Islam, provides ideological cohesion for fundamentalist movements, and allows for a narrative of oppression within marginalised groups.
In Iran, Western capitalist powers and oil interests were involved in the illegal overthrow of a democratic government in the 1950s. In the ensuing decades, Islam represented resistance to the regime in power. The revolution of 1979 led to the creation of the Islamic republic.
Find out more in Fundamentalism.
Religious organisations differ based on their size, structure, lifespan, and the commitments that each asks of its members. There are many different religious organisations.
Marxists and feminists view religion as a conservative force that reinforces the marginalised position of certain groups in society. However, some sociologists view religion as a force for social change.
Secularisation, which is the declining importance of religion within a society, is on an upward trend in the western world due to modernisation, rationalisation, and liberalisation.
Globalisation has led to both the spread and decline of religious traditions. While globalisation has made religion more accessible, it has also spread ideas of rationalisation and modernisation, which run counter to many conventional religions.
Men’s decreased participation in religion over the last few centuries has allowed churches to gradually become more feminised, and emphasise concerns such as caring and relationships. Linda Woodhead argues that these trends make religion more attractive to women. The introduction of women priests in the Church of England in the 1990s, and women bishops in 2015, are a few examples of increased leadership by women within churches, which may have intensified this trend.
Religious market theorists argue that the increased diversity in religious beliefs over time has increased the quantity and quality of religious ‘products’ on offer through competition. Churches that do not respond to the changing needs of members will decline. On the other hand, a diversity of faiths promoted by different religions can also undermine the authority of religions which claim to possess one true faith.
Religion is a set of beliefs. Commonly, these beliefs explain the cause and purpose of the universe and include a moral code intended to guide human conduct. Religion does not have a universal definition, but one of its distinguishing features is that it is faith-based.
Both science and ideology can be regarded as a societal belief system. Science differs from religion because it is an open belief system based on direct observation rather than faith. Ideology is a worldview or set of ideas and values.
Religion is a set of beliefs. Commonly, these beliefs explain the cause and purpose of the universe and include a moral code intended to guide human conduct. Religion does not have a universal definition, but one of its distinguishing features is that it is faith-based.
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Start learningWhat is the difference between science and religion?
Religion is a closed belief system that is not typically subject to challenges or criticisms from practising members. Science is a pursuit of knowledge that adapts as new knowledge is gained.
How does fundamentalism emerge?
Fundamentalism emerges in societies where modernity threatens traditional values or beliefs. In response, individuals take steps to defend their traditions against outside influence.
What are two theories that view religion as a conservative force, and as being ideological?
Marxism and feminism.
Which social theory views religion as a force that maintains value consensus and order within society?
Functionalism.
Which type of religious organisation is smaller than a church, and larger than a sect?
Denomination.
Why are women more likely to express interest in religion?
Women are more likely to express interest in religion, as they are more likely to experience poverty and marginalisation.
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