The First French Empire was ruled by Napoleon and dominated Continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. The Napoleonic Wars extended French influence as far as Poland - the French Empire was at its peak! So, how was it formed, and how did it fall?
First French Empire Keywords
Here is a list of some definitions for words and phrases that will appear throughout the text.
Bicameral parliament
A parliament that consists of two assemblies that debate the law.
The Hundred Days
A period between Napoleon's return from his exile in Elba and the assumption of power by Louis XVIII (20 March 1815 - 8 July 1815).
Constitutional monarchy
A system of governance in which a monarch rules a country, but their power is limited by a constitution.
Annexation
When a state claims ownership of a territory outside its own boundaries, usually with a military occupation.
Continental System
Part of Napoleon Bonaparte's foreign policy, in which he aimed to create a blockade of French-controlled territories in Europe in order to stop trade entering Britain.
First French Empire Emperor
In 1799, Napoleon became the First Consul of France. His power only increased, as the Constitution of the Year X (1802) allowed him to remain First Consul for life, and the Constitution of the Year XII (1804) gave Napoleon a new title - Emperor of the French - and established the First French Empire.
On 2 December 1804, Napoleon was crowned as Emperor in Notre Dame. The title "Emperor of the French" was specifically chosen to distinguish Napoleon from past French kings - it suggested that his power came from the people, not the land.
Did you know? The idea of power coming from the people had also been an important principle when France tried to enact a Constitutional Monarchy in 1789 and reform the monarchy.
First French Empire Flag
This was the flag for the new Empire. It had tri-colour stripes of blue, white, and red. The gold eagle at the centre of the coat of arms was the symbol of ancient Rome, which Napoleon tried to connect to his own imperial rule. As Jupiter's bird, the eagle represented military victory.
Fig. 1 - The Imperial standard of the First French Empire
Rise of First French Empire
Before we look at the extent of Napoleon's empire, why exactly did he want to expand anyway? There is much debate around this amongst historians, but Napoleon himself claimed that his motives were:
To protect France from attack by other European nations.
To spread revolutionary ideas and end old monarchic regimes.
To liberate oppressed people in other countries.
Different types of territories were within it, some being under Napoleon's direct control, some being controlled by his relatives, some under French influence, and others simply allies.
French Empire Map
The First French Empire reached its height in 1812 when it ruled over 90 million subjects as well as the 44 million members of the population. The extent of the Empire can be seen in the map below.
Fig. 2 - A map of the First French Empire, c.1812
So, how did the French Empire get to be so vast?
Napoleon in Italy
Before he had taken over leadership of France, Napoleon had been Commander of the French Army in Italy, leading an invasion in 1796 against Austrian influence in Italy.
Did you know? Much of Italy was ruled by France during the 1700s, which explains why Napoleon, who was from Sicily, identified as French.
Napoleon's success led to France annexing Piedmont and winning other concessions from Austria in the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio, such as their recognition of the Cisalpine Republic (Emilia Romagna, Lombardy, and small parts of Tuscany and Veneto)
By 1799, Napoleon had conquered the majority of Italy and established several new republics, which included the Cisalpine Republic. All of these republics were satellite states of France.
Satellite State
A legally independent country that is heavily influenced or controlled by another country.
The Italian Republic succeeded the Cisalpine Republic in 1802. After Napoleon became Emperor of the French, the Italian Republic became the Kingdom of Italy in 1805 and remained France's satellite state. Just as he had been president of the Italian Republic, Napoleon became King of Italy, and his stepson Eugene de Beauharnais became viceroy, ruling on his behalf.
Viceroy
Someone who governs a state as a representative of a monarch.
The Peace of Pressburg
The Peace of Pressburg marked the end of the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 and was signed between France and Austria. Here are the key terms of the Treaty:
Austria withdrew itself from the Third Coalition.
Recently gained territories in Italy and Southern Germany were given to France and Bavaria.
France was paid an indemnity of 40 million gold Francs.
By the beginning of 1806, Napoleon controlled large swathes of Italy and parts of Germany and Austria.
The Confederation of the Rhine
During the War of the Third Coalition (1805-6), after defeating Russia and Austria in the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine (1806-13), which was an alliance of 16 German states. The formation of the Confederation marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire, with Francis II being its last Emperor.
How was the Confederation of the Rhine beneficial to France?
Firstly, the initial sixteen German states of the Confederation were joined by another nineteen; this created a huge territory which was under French influence.
Secondly, the Confederation protected France against potential aggression from Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Thirdly, in return for French protection, the states of the Confederation supplied France with military equipment and soldiers.
The Treaties of Tilsit
During the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-7), Napoleon crushed Prussian armies at Jena and Auestedt. Then, his victories at Eylau and Friedland against Russia forced both Russia and Prussia, which were allied, to sign the Treaties of Tilsit with France in July 1807.
Key results of the Treaties included:
The war between Russia and France ended, with the two becoming allies.
Alexander I, Emperor of Russia, agreed to a significant reduction in Prussian territory. Ex-Prussian lands were converted into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Kingdom of Westphalia.
Prussia became dependent on France.
Napoleon and Alexander I secretly agreed to support each other in wars against other European nations.
Keeping it in the family
When establishing satellite states, Napoleon put many of his relatives in charge of the European states:
- Napoleon’s older brother, Joseph, was King of Naples and Sicily. He was later made King of Spain.
- His younger brother, Louis, assumed the throne in the Netherlands.
- His brother-in-law Joachim Murat became the Grand-Duke of Berg.
- His youngest brother Jerome became King of Westphalia.
- Napoleon’s stepson Eugene was made a Viceroy of Italy.
- His adopted daughter Stephanie de Beauharnais became Grand Duchess of Baden through marriage.
Fall of the French Empire
The First French Empire came to an end due to several 'nail-in-the-coffin' type events that sealed Napoleon and his empire's fate. The unpopularity of the Continental system and the continual flouting of its rules undermined his authority. Equally, the Peninsular War and the Russia Campaign were both disastrous for France; the War of the Sixth Coalition marked Napoleon's final defeat with the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
Timeline
Let's look at a timeline for the decline of the First French Empire.
| Date | Event |
| 1806 | The Berlin Decree was passed, creating the Continental System. |
| 1807 | The Milan Decree enforced the Continental System. |
| 1808-14 | The Peninsular War took place. |
| 1812 | Napoleon began his Russian Campaign. |
| March 1813 | The War of the Sixth Coalition began. |
| 18 June 1815 | The War of the Sixth Coalition ended at the Battle of Waterloo, marking Napoleon's final fall from power. |
The Continental System
On 16 May 1806, the British government decreed that the Royal Navy would create a blockade from Brittany (North-West France) to the mouth of the river Elbe (North-East Germany). The Berlin and Milan Decrees were Napoleon's answer to this, blocking all trade and correspondence with Great Britain.
Despite all his intentions, the Continental System was not a great success for France or Napoleon. The Continental System failed as Britain ran smuggling operations throughout Europe and simply turned to other trade partners like the Americas, which made up for their losses easily. The failure of the system significantly undermined Napoleon's authority.
Peninsular War (1808-14)
The Peninsular War erupted in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) as a result of Napoleon's efforts to enforce the Continental System on the rest of Europe and weaken Britain.
Many imports were still making their way to Britain through Portugal, which angered Napoleon. His strategy to deal with this was to invade Spain. Because Spain was in the midst of a civil war, he assumed the country was vulnerable to attack and could easily be taken over.
Fig. 3 - 'The Women Give Courage' by Francisco de Goya (1863). Goya created these prints to reflect the horrors that were inflicted upon the Spanish people during Napoleon's invasion.
However, what was supposed to be a quick takeover of an ailing country turned into one of the most significant events in Napoleon's downfall. The war lasted six years, taking up a huge number of resources, and his inability to win the war quickly called into question his leadership and authority.
Napoleon’s campaign in Russia
In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia - this was to prove disastrous and significantly weakened French power in Europe.
Despite the size of his army, Napoleon struggled as he could not use his usual tactics of luring the enemy towards him. As the Russian armies retreated, they left behind 'scorched earth' - this was a big problem as Napoleon's armies were unable to resupply themselves and were weakened.
Scorched Earth
A military strategy in which the aim is to destroy anything that an advancing enemy might find useful.
Unable to advance further, Napoleon and his army began to retreat on 19 October 1812. The return journey through the Russian winter was unbearable - out of the 600,000 soldiers who had come to Russia, only 25,000 made it back to France.
Fig. 4 - 'French Retreat of 1812' by Pyranishnikov
When news of the disaster in Russia reached those back in the Empire, confidence in Napoleon's leadership fell ever more.
The more you know... The Russian campaign had an even worse impact as the Peninsular War in Spain was also going downhill at this point. Two disastrous campaigns badly affected Napoleon's reputation.
The War of the Sixth Coalition
After Napoleon's army left Russia, the other European powers began allying themselves for one last attempt at defeating Napoleon. The War of the Sixth Coalition began in March 1813 when Sweden declared war on France. After the defeats in Spain and Russia, Napoleon's armies were depleted and morale was low, resulting in further losses during the conflict. Ultimately, this would be the final nail in the coffin for Napoleon.
Napoleon and Sweden
Initially, Sweden did not get involved in the Napoleonic wars. However, after the Duke of Enghien was executed in 1804 for 'aiding the British', Sweden broke all diplomatic efforts with France and joined the Third Coalition, declaring war on France on 31 October 1805.
Fortunately, Napoleon's plan to invade Sweden was abandoned, but in 1810 Sweden was guided into signing the Treaty of Paris with France, which forced them to join the Continental System and declare war on Britain. Despite this, the Swedish government supported the smuggling of goods to and from Britain and assured the British that there would be no actual fighting. The 'war' continued until 1812 without a single shot being fired!
Legacy of the French Empire
After Napoleon's abdication, allies discussed the future of France in the Congress of Vienna from September 1814 - June 1815. As a result, France had to give up all the countries it had conquered during the Napoleonic wars.
Fig. 5 - 'Battle of Waterloo, 1815' by Sadler II
The restoration of the French monarchy was briefly interrupted by turmoil during the Hundred Days, yet this was soon ended as Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate after the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 - and this time, it would be permanent. The resultant second Treaty of Paris reduced France's border to their pre-Napoleon state.
First French Empire - Key takeaways
The First French Empire was created in 1804 and lasted until Napoleon's defeat in 1815.
Napoleon pursued an aggressive foreign policy, conquering Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany and large swathes of Eastern and Central Europe.
He created the Continental System as a way to weaken Britain economically by stopping imports and exports going through Europe. However, this was not very effective, as Britain had allies that continued to trade with them as well as a large smuggling network.
The downfall of the First French Empire came with the Peninsular War in Spain and the Russian Campaign. The Peninsular War was a lengthy and draining conflict, while the Russian campaign was a lethal and badly planned disaster.
Napoleon was eventually defeated by the Sixth Coalition in 1815, after the Hundred Days. The Second Treaty of Paris effectively undid all of Napoleon's work, reducing France's borders back to their 1790 state.
References
- Fig. 1 - "Imperial Standard, raised in the presence of the Emperor of the French" (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Imperial_Standard,_raised_in_the_presence_of_the_Emperor_of_the_French_(used_as_a_state_flag_by_the_First_French_Empire_under_the_absolute_monarchy)._Used_from_around_1804_to_1814,_1815_-_Variant_4.png) by Pswank91 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Pswank91) licensed by CC BY SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)
- Fig. 2 - "French Empire in 1812" (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:French_Empire_in_1812.jpg) by MapArchive (www.themaparchive.com) licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)
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