Naval and Arms Race

Throughout the 19^th century, Great Britain ruled the seas. The largest and most developed navy in the world, the British Royal Navy was essential in guarding Britain's overseas territories and commerce routes. Britain's naval supremacy had largely remained unchallenged since the 18^th century. Only when German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II came to power in 1888 did its superiority come under threat.

Embarking on a policy of Weltpolitik, Kaiser Wilhelm II sought to amass a navy that would challenge Britain. The naval race that followed increased tensions between Great Britain and Germany and became one of the primary causes of the First World War.

Arms and Naval Race: Key Terms

Before we start, we must understand the difference between the arms race, naval race, and arms race on land. Here is a quick table outlining what the aforementioned key terms mean:

Arms and Naval Race WW1

To understand the Arms and Naval Race that preceded the First World War, let's look at a quick timeline outlining the naval race between Great Britain and Germany.

Causes of Arms Race

Since the 18^th century, Great Britain had been the dominant naval force. There were several reasons why a strong navy was important to Great Britain:

• Being an island, Great Britain's primary form of defence was its navy.

• Britain had colonies all over the world. Consequently, the British Navy was essential to the protection of the British Empire.

• Great Britain relied heavily on imports. The Royal Navy protected commerce routes and trade ships.

Fig. 1 British Empire in 1921.

Unlike Great Britain, Germany's desire for a navy was somewhat illogical. Germany was a predominantly landlocked country with very few overseas colonies. Germany's desire for a large naval force stemmed from its policy of Weltpolitik.

Kaiser Wilhelm firmly believed that a strong navy was integral to making the German Empire into an industrialised world power. Furthermore, Germany also believed that a strong navy could force Britain into handing over some of its colonial territories.

German Navy

In 1897, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz devised a plan to build a German navy that would rival Great Britain. Between 1898 and 1912, five German Naval Laws were passed to build up Germany's naval capabilities.

Fig. 2 Admiral Alfred Von Tirpitz.

• The 1898 First Navy Law legislated that seven new battleships would be built. The addition of these seven new ships would mean Germany would have 19 ships in total.

• The 1900 Second Navy Law would double Germany's navy to 38 ships.

• The 1906 Third Navy Law legislated the building of six large cruisers.

• The 1908 Fourth Navy Law meant that Battleships would be replaced after 20 years instead of 25.

• The 1912 Fifth Navy Law legislated the building of three more battleships.

British Navy

While there is a common belief that the naval race between Great Britain and Germany began in 1898 after the latter passed its First Navy Law, this is not necessarily the case. Until 1908, Britain largely ignored Germany's naval endeavours; instead, Herbert Asquith's Liberal government prioritised social welfare and fiscal stringency over military spending.

Only during the summer of 1908 – when Germany declared their Fourth Navy Law – alarm bells in Britain began to sound. Such concern was only exacerbated when Germany unveiled their fourth Dreadnought of the year.

After the fourth navy law, parliament had a unified consensus that Britain needed to expand its naval power. While there was debate about the level of Dreadnought construction – the conservatives coined the phrase 'We want eight and we won't wait!' — Parliament finally agreed to issue the construction of 4 new Dreadnoughts in 1909.

Britain's naval expenditure was increased in 1910 when the House of Lords – who were previously against military spending – agreed to Chancellor David Lloyd George's 'People's Budget'. Lloyd George's People's Budget saw increased funding for building Dreadnoughts and the subsequent escalation of the naval race.

The Invention of the Dreadnought

Although British naval spending only significantly increased in 1908, Britain had been busy improving its naval technology. Germany's Second Navy Act of 1900 worried Britain's military hierarchy and indicated that Germany was preparing for war. In response, the Royal Navy – under the leadership of Admiral John Fisher – set about creating a new type of battleship that would render previous models obsolete.

Fig. 3 John Fisher.

Created in 1906, the HMS Dreadnought could outgun three standard battleships. The invention of the Dreadnought transformed the naval race between Great Britain and Germany. Subsequently, both countries focused on building the most number of Dreadnoughts.

Fig. 4 HMS Dreadnought.

The Dreadnought Race between Germany and Great Britain

Here is a table outlining Great Britain and Germany's total number of Dreadnoughts between 1906 and 1914:

As we can see from the table, Germany built its first four Dreadnoughts in 1908. It's no coincidence that Germany's increased naval efforts coincided with Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This event – known as the Bosnian Crisis – heightened international tensions, with Germany exercising Weltpolitik to involve itself and ally with Austria-Hungary.

The table also shows us that Great Britain drastically increased its Dreadnought-building efforts between 1910 and 1914 – when its Two-Power Standard was under serious threat. Such increased militarism also coincided with the Second Moroccan Crisis. This event iterated Germany's expansionist ambitions and increased hostilities between the European powers.

German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg ended the naval race in 1912. The German Chancellor recognised Germany's isolated geopolitical position and sought to improve relations with Great Britain. Embarking on a policy of Rüstungswende, Germany began to divert military expenditure from its navy to its army.

Germany's policy of Rüstungswende led to the Haldane Mission of February 1912. The Haldane Mission was a German diplomatic effort to instigate a period of détente between Great Britain and Germany in the wake of the naval race. Without success, Germany attempted to trade British naval predominance in return for British neutrality in the event of Germany going to war.

The Arms Race on Land

The arms race was not just confined to the ocean; all the major European superpowers began increasing military expenditure.

This table illustrates the combined military spending of the major European powers: Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia:¹

As well as increasing their military expenditure, the European powers began making plans in the eventuality that war broke out:

• France established Plan 17 – a military strategy that planned for the invasion of Germany before they could mobilise their reserve army.

• Britain founded the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in 1906. This small force of highly trained soldiers was among the best in Europe.

• Germany developed the Schlieffen Plan – a strategy to first defeat France before turning its attention toward Russia; by doing so, Germany would avoid a two-front war.

• Russia introduced conscription and exponentially built up the size of its army throughout the 1900s, it was the fastest-growing army in Europe.

Fig. 5 British Expeditionary Force.

The Significance of the Arms and Naval Races

The arms race was a significant contributing factor to the First World War. Not only did it increase hostilities between the powers, but it led to the growth of militarism across Europe.

Here are several reasons why the arms and naval race caused the First World War:

• As countries increased their military capabilities, suspicion and mistrust grew among the European powers. Such international tension led to the Triple Alliance (1882) between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, and the Triple Entente (1907) between Great Britain, France, and Russia. These alliance systems would ultimately elevate the conflict from an Eastern European affair to a whole-scale European war.

• The arms race prompted the increase in militarism across Europe; military generals had a say in politics, soldiers were painted as heroes, and large amounts of government expenditure were directed to the military. The military's influence on society led to the belief that war was the best way of resolving international disputes.

• Throughout the arms race, there was a serious investment in military production. This meant that deadly weapons could be mass-produced on an unprecedented level.

• Throughout the arms race, countries grew their armies, developed new military technologies, and laid plans for the eventuality of war. In essence, countries were in a perpetual state of 'readiness' for war.