People often like to think they control their behaviour. But the truth is external forces often condition our reactions, sometimes without us even being aware.
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People often like to think they control their behaviour. But the truth is external forces often condition our reactions, sometimes without us even being aware.
Suppose you are scared of thunder. Every time you see a bolt of lightning, you might wince in expectation of thunder noise. If an association is formed, then that conditioned response is what we call classical conditioning in psychology.
Topics discussed are the classical conditioning definition and Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments.
First, let’s untangle the definition of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli to elicit a new learned response in animal and human behaviour. It can also be referred to as learning by association or learning by conditioning.
According to John Watson (1913), classical conditioning explains all aspects of human psychology based on Pavlov’s findings and observations.
Classical conditioning theorists take the side of nurture in the nature-nurture debate. They believe that environmental factors shape behaviour.
Classical Conditioning: Key Terms
Before we start, let’s look at defining key terms in classical conditioning.
A neutral stimulus is an event that does not elicit a response.
An unconditional stimulus is an event that produces a natural or innate response.
An unconditional (innate) response is an unlearned natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.
The conditioned stimulus is an event that elicits a learned response.
The conditioned response is a learned response elicited by conditioned stimuli.
Classical Conditioning: Psychology
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov proposed classical conditioning. Pavlov’s dogs inspired his experiment (1897) when he noticed the dogs salivating as soon as his assistant opened their cage doors. The reason behind this was presumed as because they associated the doors opening with receiving food.
Pavlov (1897) decided to test this theory by conducting a new experiment in which, each time, the dogs were given food (stimulus 1), and a bell was sounded (stimulus 2) simultaneously. The dogs slowly learned to associate the ringing of a bell with food (new learned response).
He also observed and investigated the factors that can influence the strength and speed of learning by association and how they can explain some human behaviours, such as neurosis.
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Experiment
In the 1890s, Pavlov studied salivation in dogs as an expectant response to being fed. He placed a small tube in each dog’s cheek to measure the amount of saliva they produced when being fed. He expected the dogs to salivate at the sight of food. But instead, they salivated at the sound of the footsteps of his assistant, who fed them.
He found that the dogs elicited a similar response to anything (lab assistant) paired with food. Pavlov researched this scientific discovery for many years.
Pavlov based his study on the idea that some responses in dogs are innate and not learned. For example, dogs salivate naturally at the sight of food; they do not learn this response because it is biologically wired.
Pavlov concluded from this observation that the unconditioned stimulus is the food, which leads to an unconditioned response, i.e., the dog’s salivation.
Initially, the unconditioned stimulus was food, and the unconditioned response was salivation.
Pavlov strapped the dog into a harness attached to an apparatus that measured the rate and amount of salivation in three stages.
The dog’s salivation was measured once when only the bell rang. The neutral stimulus (bell) led to no conditioned response.
He again measured the saliva when giving food to the dog.
Pavlov measured saliva when he rang the bell and presented the food simultaneously.
The steps were repeated to condition the dogs to learn this association.
The dog’s saliva levels were high after this conditioning, with just the bell ringing but without food.
This step was crucial to measure the strength of the learned response. The neutral stimulus now became the conditioned stimulus.
And the conditioned stimulus (bell) led to a conditioned response (salivation).
According to Pavlov, a conditioned response can only be learned if both stimuli coincide. If there is a considerable time difference between the occurrence of the conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food), the association cannot be learned. This time difference is called temporal contiguity.
Classical Conditioning Examples
Although classical conditioning emerged from animal research, it can be exemplified in various everyday scenarios. One of these examples is the development of a phobia.
Individuals learn to associate something that originally does not evoke fear, such as a spider (the neutral stimulus), with something that triggers the fear response, such as being bitten by the spider (unconditioned stimulus).
Once the association is formed, the spider is the conditioned stimulus, which would trigger the conditioned response, fear. As a consequence of such association, a phobia is developed.
Fig. 1. Example of a stimulus that may trigger fear in some individuals.
Marketing and advertising are also fields in which classical conditioning can be seen.
Let’s take Coca-Cola, for example. When you think of their advertisements, it is always of people enjoying the taste or having a good time. Advertisements are repetitively shown; this concept sounds like classical conditioning, right?
In theory, over time, we may associate drinks from the Coca-Cola brand with positive feelings such as enjoyment and great taste, which will likely lead to more people consuming the drinks.
Classical conditioning in consumer behaviour is a type of learning that can explain buying behaviour. According to this view, individuals develop positive associations towards a given product, which increases its consumption.
Classical Conditioning: Evaluation
Pavlov significantly contributed to the theory of classical conditioning, which many researchers replicated after him. Although Pavlov’s theory formed the basis of classical conditioning, researchers who came after him added some important arguments for and against this theory.
Moreover. the theory of classical conditioning is considered scientific because it uses controlled, empirical experiments to prove the existence of the theories.
Supportive research has arisen from John Watson (1913). In his Little Albert experiment, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a rat. The study showed that classical conditioning could explain how forming associations can lead to learning new behaviours.
Pavlov’s experiment supports the claim that our learning depends mainly on our environment. He rules out the possibility that we can learn some behaviours through the interaction of nature (biological) and the environment (cultivated).
The issue with this is the theory can be assumed as reductionist as it over-simplifies behaviour to one component even though research has shown that other factors, such as genetics, contribute to behaviour.
Lobo and Kennedy (2009) found a 50-60% heritability likelihood in twins having pathological gambling issues. The twin genetic vulnerabilities were also found with antisocial behaviour, alcohol issues and major depressive disorder.
It’s important to note twins are often raised in the same environment. So this suggests that researchers should try to understand behaviour in terms of genes (biological factors) and their environment.
Classical conditioning can be tested in a controlled laboratory setting. However, it may not apply to and explain complex human behaviours such as higher cognitive skills like problem-solving and memory.
Classical conditioning is deterministic in that it constrains the individual’s free will. The theory suggests that animals and humans are passive beings, and we have no control over our behaviour.
The free will versus determinism debate is important because if we have no control over our behaviour, we cannot be considered responsible for our actions. So what does this mean for criminals?
Classical and Operant Conditioning: Comparisons
Operant conditioning is another behavioural explanation that explains behaviour in terms of associating a stimulus-response with reinforcement or punishment.
Although classical and operant conditioning shares certain similarities, they are different from one another. Operant conditioning refers to associating an involuntary response, such as salivation, with a response. In operant conditioning, the association is between a stimulus and its consequence.
A dog can be trained to sit by giving a treat every time it accomplishes such behaviour.
Or if an individual is punished after performing a particular behaviour, e.g. a cat sitting on the sofa, then the individual is less likely to continue the behaviour. On the other hand, if the learner receives a reward, they are more likely to continue the behaviour.
In short, the main difference between the two types of conditioning is that in operant conditioning, the stimulus-response occurs based on rewards and punishments. In contrast, classical conditioning is based on associations learned over time.
Fig. 2. Example of a dog trained through operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning - Key takeaways
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in 1897.
In classical conditioning, two stimuli are associated to elicit a new, learned response in animal and human behaviour.
Pavlov based his study on the idea that some responses in dogs are innate and not learned.
Pavlov (1897) found that each time dogs were given food (stimulus 1) and heard a bell ring (stimulus 2), they slowly learned whenever they heard a bell, they would be given food (new learned response).
The theory of classical conditioning is considered scientific because it is a lab-controlled experiment with empirical evidence. But, there are drawbacks to the approach, too, e.g. it is regarded as reductionist.
Frequently Asked Questions about Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is when two stimuli are paired to create a new learned response in animal and human behaviour.
Examples of classical conditioning are phobias.
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in 1897.
There are many ways in which classical conditioning is used today. Examples of this include the explanation of phobias or marketing and consumer behaviour.
Classical conditioning in consumer behaviour is a type of learning that can explain buying behaviour. According to this view, individuals develop positive associations towards a given product, which motivates its consumption.
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