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Cognitive approaches in psychology date back to 1967 and were made famous by Ulric Neisser's book 'Cognitive Psychology'. Cognitive approaches focus on our thought processes and how they explain our behaviour and certain psychological phenomena. Cognitive approaches use computer models and introspective studies to examine how our thoughts affect us.
Cognitive studies use a range of methods such as case studies, questionnaires, laboratory experiments, and interviews to find out our thinking patterns and what they mean to us.
Suppose we use the cognitive approach to explain gender and its development. In that case, we must first base our theories on the assumption that gender identity is a cognitive concept, ie, something that takes place in our minds and is not biologically determined or strictly behavioral. As our brains physically develop, our cognitive abilities also mature, meaning we are capable of more complex thought. This idea forms the basis for the theories we will explore in this section.
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg published his cognitive theory of gender development in the 1960s. His theory states that gender development occurs in stages, similar to Jean Piaget's 1936 essay describing specific stages in which children develop certain cognitive skills. Kohlberg theorized that as children develop cognitive skills, their understanding of their gender and that of the people around them increases.
Kohlberg described three stages: gender labeling (ages 2-3), gender stability (age 4), and gender consistency (ages 6-7), in which children begin to understand various complexities surrounding gender, such as how to identify the gender of others and the idea that gender is constant and does not change based on superficial factors such as clothing.
A strength of Kohlberg's theory is that many studies support it, eg Thompson (1975) and Munroe et al. (1984). The existence of research supports the validity of the theory.
A weakness of this theory is that it is descriptive rather than explanatory. It does not explain why gender identities and certain attitudes regarding gender emerge but merely describes what this process looks like and when specific changes occur.
Carol Martin and Charles Halverston developed the gender schema theory in 1981. It describes how gender identities develop based on our schemas about that aspect of ourselves and others. Schemas are abstract cognitive representations of concepts, like a mental toolbox containing information about various things.
In terms of gender, Martin and Halverston suggested that children develop their gender identity by creating schemas about different genders and determining their in-group and out-group based on this. By identifying with their in-group, usually consisting of people with similar gender identity, children take on gender characteristics and develop their gender expression and their idea of belonging to their in-group.
The good thing about this theory is that it helps explain the thought processes behind Kohlberg's stages much more comprehensively. Some studies support this theory, such as a 1993 study by Liben and Signorella in which 106 predominantly white children were shown stereotypical images of behaviors alongside neutral and non-stereotypical images. In two studies, children had difficulty remembering nontraditional and opposite-sex stimuli even when given additional interpretations (eg, labels) when they first encountered the stimuli.
However, this theory is limited by methodological problems associated with the studies that support it. Many of the studies used to support this theory are based on interviews with young children, which increases the likelihood of demand characteristics.
Cognitive approaches to gender can be applied in nurseries to help children develop healthy gender identities and positive attitudes toward people with gender identities different from their own.
For example, suppose we know that children develop their gender schemas around the age of two, as Martin and Halverston suggest. In that case, we could incorporate an inclusive introduction to gender education at this age to promote positive and inclusive attitudes towards those inside and outside the child's group. This could help reduce sexist and transphobic attitudes later in life.
When we look at a particular topic in psychology from a particular psychological approach, it can be helpful to look at how other schools of thought also approach the same phenomenon. We can use our knowledge of different approaches to evaluate the ones we are focusing on and see which approach best explains the various elements of a particular topic.
Initially developed by Sigmund Freud between 1890 and 1930, the psychodynamic approach focuses on how our unconscious thoughts and drives influence our behaviour. This approach assumes that we develop our gender identities around the age of five, which Freud calls the 'phallic stage', through specific crises he calls 'complexes'.
Freud proposes that children develop their gender through the Oedipus complex. The complex is described as unconscious tension in which a young boy is preoccupied with his mother and hates his father, viewing him as a rival. In a girl, it is the other way around. The Oedipus complex is traditionally used to describe the development of boys. To resolve this tension, the boy takes on the masculine characteristics of his father.
Carl Jung proposes that the female gender identity develops through the Electra complex. The complex is described as an unconscious tension in which a young girl is preoccupied with her father and hates her mother because she sees her as a rival and believes she has castrated her, so she has no penis. Freud refers to this as penis envy. To resolve this tension, the girl adopts her mother's feminine traits and replaces her desire for a penis with a desire for a baby.
The biological approach to gender suggests that our gender identities are based on biology. There are two different factors at play: our genetics and our hormones.
Our biological sex is determined at birth by our 23rd chromosome. We either have the pattern XX (for a female) or XY (for a male) within this chromosome. However, there are rare exceptions to this rule. For example, people with a genetic condition known as Klinefelter's syndrome have the chromosomal pattern XXY, which results in different physical characteristics than typical males with an XY chromosome.
Hormones are chemicals in our body's endocrine system carried through the bloodstream that perform specific functions. Certain hormones contribute to our physical sex characteristics.
In the womb, around the eighth week of pregnancy, the presence of the hormone testosterone determines whether a baby is born with male or female genitalia. When testosterone is present, the male sex organs begin to develop and the hypothalamus changes so that the brain is more inclined to male behaviors. When testosterone is not present, the baby grows female sex organs, and its brain does not undergo significant gendered changes.
During puberty (between the ages of 10 and 16), young people experience another surge of hormones. In males, testosterone levels rise sharply, developing secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair and a deeper voice. In women, estrogen levels rise sharply, developing secondary sexual characteristics such as breasts and beginning their menstrual cycle.
The two cognitive theories of development are the Kohlberg’s theory (1966) and the gender schema theory (1981). Both describe how specific cognitive skills and thought processes can affect how our gender identity develops.
Cognitive influences on our gender can include who we consider our in- and out-groups, how those around us express or conceptualise gender and media's impact on gender roles.
Developmentally, there aren’t many cognitive differences in the development of boys and girls. However, the different in- and out-groups, which are cognitive concepts that boys and girls identify with during their early years, can significantly impact their gender expression.
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