What makes science 'science'? What are the essential features and characteristics of science? Not every study in science is automatically accepted; there are core factors a study needs to consider to ensure it meets the rigorous requirements of scientific research. So, what are the core features of science? And how can psychology ensure its research adheres to these strict guidelines?
- We will start by exploring the features of science in psychology.
- Then we will discuss why scientific research is important.
- After, we will delve into the scientific method of research.
- Moving on, we will look at scientific research examples,
- Finally, we will understand the features of psychology as a science.
Features of Science
Science is a discipline that investigates phenomena that occurs in the real world. The core features of science are objectivity, empiricism, replicability, falsifiability, theory construction, paradigms and paradigm shifts, and using systematic procedures. Let's explore each feature further.
Fig. 1 - Scientific research has distinct features.
Features of Science Psychology: Empiricism
A major feature of science is that it should follow the empirical method.
The empirical method is a research process to obtain information using observable evidence to draw conclusions. These conclusions are what researchers use to build and propose theories.
The empirical method provides a systematic way to collect, analyse, and organise data and aims to differentiate between scientific facts and opinions about phenomena.
The empirical method uses data that must be objective. This means that the data should be based on observable, factual information that isn't influenced by subjectivity. For instance, the researcher's personal opinion, bias, and prejudice should not affect the research outcome.
Objective research that follows the empirical method can indicate that certain research findings have high validity.
Features of Science Psychology: Replicability
Scientific research needs to be replicable. Research findings must be tested repeatedly to identify if they are reliable.
We assess the reliability of research by identifying if we found consistent results when we repeat the same study with different participants, in various settings, and at different times.
If we find similar results, we can infer the research has high reliability and is therefore generalisable.
Features of Science Psychology: Falsifiability
Karl Popper (1934) proposed the theory of falsifiability. He suggested that to regard research as scientific, theories/hypotheses should be:
Additionally, Popper argued that research is provisional. He stated that scientific understanding and progression could occur via the theory of falsification.
| Popper's theory of falsifiability |
| Theory-laden world | Researchers use what we currently know about the world to understand phenomena. |
| Deductive logic | Develop theories and test them (empirically) based on existing theories. This research aims to either support or negate the current truth. |
| Results | If yielded results are significant, then the theory can be accepted as the current truth. |
Why is Scientific Research Important?
Let's summarise why the features of science are important!
| Features of science | Why is it important? |
| Empiricism | It gives a means for others to test the theory to help identify whether the findings are truthful. If a researcher is conducting a study using introspection (participant reflects and reports how they're feeling), how do we know that the participant or the researcher is being truthful? In addition, how useful is this? Can we use these recordings to accept a drug as safe? No, right, we need scientific evidence. |
| Replicability | It is problematic if replicated research differs in terms of the sample or the setting differed in results. The results are inconsistent, so how do we know which is correct? |
| Falsifiability | Scientific research aims to uncover the truth, but how can researchers do this if they can't even test theories? |
The Scientific Method of Research
To ensure that research is scientific, researchers need to:
Construct a logical theory.
Define variables that are predicted to be related to the phenomenon or a way of measuring the phenomenon.
Explain/predict the relationship between the variables.
Propose a theory that offers testable hypotheses.
After building a theory and developing their proposed hypothesis (testable prediction of what they expect to observe in their research), the researcher should use rigorous scientific methods to test the hypothesis.
This process allows the researcher to identify if their proposed hypothesis should be accepted or rejected based on empirical and objective evidence. This process is known as deduction.
If, after the process, the researcher rejects a hypothesis, they must modify and re-test the theory, hypotheses, and research.
What and how researchers investigate something depends on the paradigm they and the psychology community accept.
The scientific Method of Research: Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
Paradigms are a way of looking at something. Psychologists decide which standpoint is the 'best' perspective or approach to take when investigating psychological phenomena.
Paradigms in psychology are standard perspectives and concepts that concern theories and research methods.
The psychodynamic approach to psychology argues that we can understand human behaviour better by investigating underlying issues during childhood or conflicts in the psyche (aspects of the personality that Sigmund Freud described) through introspection and psychoanalysis.
According to Kuhn, the purpose of a paradigm is to provide researchers with a theoretical framework (the conceptual scheme), which provides guidelines for assumptions, concepts, and methodological techniques they should keep in mind when conducting research.
It provides a consensus on the direction and goals that research should follow.
Throughout the history of psychology, there have been changes in the predominant paradigm. Kuhn's work explained the link between paradigms and the progression of research.
| Kuhn's theory on the progression of paradigms |
| Step 1 - there is an accepted paradigm. | A paradigm is accepted based on the current zeitgeist (the intellectual and cultural spirit of the time). |
| Step 2 - there is a crisis. | A crisis arises when a paradigm can no longer explain phenomena or anomalies found; this causes a scientific revolution. |
| Step 3 - there is a paradigm shift. | The shift occurs when a new paradigm is accepted because it can explain phenomena better and the anomalies. |
Scientific Research Example
Let's look at the approaches in psychology and whether they accept that research should take a scientific approach.
| Approaches in Psychology | Accept we should take a scientific approach to research |
| Biological | Yes |
| Cognitive | Yes |
| Behavioural | Yes |
| Psychodynamic | No |
| Humanistic | No |
Features of Psychology as a Science
There are ongoing debates amongst psychologists about whether psychology should be considered a science. This next section will discuss the points for and against psychology being classed as a science.
The arguments that psychology should be considered a science are:
Similar to scientific research, Psychology has established research quality criteria such as high validity, reliability, objectivity, and credibility. Research has to meet these criteria to be published.
However, some psychologists/scientists argue that psychology is not a science because:
Some approaches and theories are not directly observable or testable, such as the imbalance and conflict between parts of the psyche (personality.) As these can't be objectively measured, this raises the question of whether this research is scientific.
Features of Science - Key takeaways
- A subject needs certain features for it to be regarded as a science. These include objectivity, replicability, collecting empirical data, hypotheses/theories should be falsifiable, and research should be collected using theory construction and hypothesis testing methods.
The empirical method provides a systematic way to collect, analyse, and organise data. It allows researchers to differentiate scientific, objective facts from opinions about phenomena.
Scientific research should be replicable to establish the reliability of findings.
After constructing a theory and proposing a hypothesis, the researcher should use rigorous scientific methods to test and accept or reject the theories/hypotheses.
There is an ongoing debate about whether psychology can be classified as a science.
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