Feminist Theory of Education

You're a tomboy; when choosing between Barbies and football, you always select playing midfield. So, when you enrol at an all-female school at 11, you can't help but notice a slight feminisation of education. While physics is in the curriculum, only a few girls are pushed to achieve. You're no longer driven to advance in football, and in English, you're exploring the romantic literature of Jane Austen. Again, as a tomboy, you cannot help but notice the lack of gender neutrality.

Now 16 and having been in this environment for five years, you're less of a tomboy as you once were. Apprenticeships are offered at your school, and none of the girls opt for plumbing. It isn't even offered, but a few venture into hair and beauty. How many boys pursue a hair and beauty apprenticeship? How far have women truly come? Feminist theory is a branch of sociological thought which prioritises ideas from the female perspective. This article will explore the changing aspirations of females and the diversification of feminist thought when applied to the education system.

• In this explanation, you will be introduced to the feminist theory of education as explored in sociology.
• You will explore changing female attitudes to education from 1970 to the modern day.
• You will explore the implications of feminism on education and its function.
• You will then explore education through feminist theory in action from the liberal, radical, marxist and socialist feminist perspectives.

Fig. 1 - We'll be looking at the role and function of the education system from a feminist perspective.

Feminist theory in sociology

Feminist theory is a branch of sociology and an extension of feminism into academic discourse. Feminists argue that other sociological theories, such as Functionalism and Marxism, are malestream. This means women and girls are discussed within the appendages of men and boys.

Most people are preoccupied with understanding and explaining things only through men's experiences - issues of patriarchy and gender inequality, how it oppresses women, and how sexual and gender minorities are largely ignored.

A brief history of feminism in the UK

In Britain, the feminist movement took sway once Mary Wollstonecraft (1792) published A Vindication of the Rights of Women. However, the first wave of feminism was divided between the peaceful suffragists of Millicent Fawcett and the 'militant' suffragettes Emmeline Pankhurst led. The suffragettes were willing to get the vote via any means possible and were frequently imprisoned. They were notably force-fed, and Emily Davidson died when she threw herself in front of the king's horse in 1913.

In 1918, women in the UK won the right to vote. In France, women won the right to vote in 1920 and from there, the second wave feminism begun. Many figures led the second wave of Feminism. Simone de Beauvoir (1949) published The Second Sex, a classic feminist text which moves through the stages of womanhood. In America, Betty Friedan (1963) published The Feminine Mystique. Arguing there was an added beauty qualification that held women back at work and when moving through society.

Then, came third wave feminism. The third wave of feminism was intrigued by notions of sexuality and making feminism an inclusive space for all those who identify as women. Previous waves of feminism were critiqued for their exclusion of women of colour/trans women.

Contribution of feminist theory on education

Sociologists have highlighted the contributions of feminist theory on education; regarding the education system, most feminists believe the education system reinforces patriarchy and/or inequality. One example is Heaton and Lawson (1996), who argue the hidden curriculum supports gender roles.

Aims of feminist theory in education

Feminist perspectives on education help us understand historical reasons for underachievement, and gender socialisation and how the education system can factor into the formation of gendered identities. We will explore female attitudes towards education before exploring the feminist theory of education in greater detail.

Feminist theory and the study of gender and education: Attitudes towards education

How have female attitudes towards education changed?

Why was there a change in attitudes towards education?

Sharpe (1994) found by the 1990s, many of these women had seen relationship breakdowns and witnessed women struggling in a 'man's world'. This coincides with divorce rates; according to the Office of National Statistics (2016), divorce rose from 58,239 in 1970 to 153,386 in 1990. Education was now seen as a more valuable tool as a means to reach financial independence (Sharpe, 1994).

The 1980s also saw the achievement gap between girls and boys change; since then, girls have outperformed boys.

We can juxtapose Sharpe's study on working-class female aspirations to the female subculture groups Paul Willis explored in 1977. Willis (1977) identified:

• White female students would adopt exaggerated femininity with a strong focus on traditional femininity

• Afro-Caribbean female students were pro-education, often aiming for high positions of employment. They would often attempt to keep a low profile

These findings have been verified by other sociologists. Other sociologists have found West Indian women were motivated to go and find work for reasons of independence. While, Archer et al. (2013) found the creation of a 'sexy' image was important to most women in the education setting.

The link between education and work

One perspective is working-class women saw leaving school early as an escape. Employment raised their status within the family so many were motivated to find work.

Francis (2011) has strongly noted that there is an issue with young women having aspirational poverty. For Francis, aspirational poverty presumes men will leave high ranking managerial positions and quietly become administrators and secretaries.

This position was called into question by some, who questioned whether Francis (2011) was arguing it was female aspirations which had become problematic. But rather, Francis (2011) seemed to be arguing, in an obscure way, that girls outperform boys in the education system. This win does not correlate to greater advantages in terms of career and pay. It seems the qualities which are rewarded in the education setting are not those which are rewarded in the workplace. This is clear when we look at female success.

Francis (2011) concluded that the education system does not seem to adequately prepare women for the work world, masculine boardrooms and an environment where aggressiveness is often rewarded.

Feminism and the role and function of education

Feminist sociologists partly agree with Functionalists and Marxists about the role and functions of education. For example, like Talcott Parsons, they see education as an agent of secondary socialisation. However, feminists believe:

• Education transmits patriarchal norms and values and gender scripts.

• Education legitimises patriarchy and teaches women and girls to accept their position in society.

Although there is a common agreement among feminist sociologists, there are many perspectives on the function and role of education. Some feminists argue:

• Education upholds white supremacy through the teaching of Eurocentric and whitewashed histories.

• Education reinforces European capitalist heteropatriarchy, meaning it teaches children that the nuclear family is natural and the only legitimate family. Capitalist heteropatriarchy is a cultural and socio-political system where European/Euro-American heterosexual men dominate women and sexual minorities.

• White teachers have contributed to the oppression of non-white children and in maintaining inequality in education. Cherng and Halpin (2016) found that pupils, including white pupils, had a more favourable perception of teachers of colour than white teachers. This was partially due to the discrimination pupils faced in school.

Educational implications of feminist theory

Implications of more female role models in education

More than ever, women can now see more educated role models in the workplace, except for a few academies that legally place women who do not have a degree as teachers. Most pupils in educational settings will be led by a teacher who has completed not only a degree but a teaching qualification.

The feminisation of the curriculum also means women are more likely to be studied at school, contributing to a greater sense of pride. In addition, the Department for Education (2019) found that more than half of teaching assistants aspire to be teachers. These career aspirations likely rub off on students.

Implications of changing career aspirations in education

Girls now have greater career aspirations than they did in the past. Sharpe (1976, 1994) studies highlight this, women in the 1970/80s aspired to be mothers, and young women who did enter the workforce were more likely to do so at the lower end, working in administration or retail. By the 1990s, more women had grander career aspirations; one reason being the relationship breakdowns they saw surrounding them.

Implications of feminisation of the curriculum on education

Education and the learning/teaching strategies now engaged could arguably be geared towards girls, thus contributing to their betterment more so than boys. The feminisation of the curriculum could arguably be one reason boys underachieve comparatively to girls. Education may increasingly be becoming a female domain.

Feminist theory of education: examples

We'll go through several key feminist theories of education, including liberal, radical and Marxist feminist theories.

Liberal feminist view of education

Liberal feminism is based on individual autonomy (or personal autonomy). Liberal feminists are primarily concerned with equality between the sexes and believe equality is possible through a change in law and legislation, which maximises individual autonomy. They are concerned with overt sexism and the legal protection of women and girls in education.

Liberal feminists highlight that the education system has made a lot of progress. While patriarchy still exists, girls have managed to make advancements in education; for example, girls outperform boys at GCSE. Education is now useful to and benefits girls because many of the barriers women and girls faced in the past have been removed.

Education and legal changes

Liberal feminists point to laws such as the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, which made it unlawful for an individual to be discriminated against in the workplace and the Equality Act of 2010, which decreed that men and women in the same employment performing the same work must be paid the same, to show advancement in gender equality.

When focusing on education, liberal feminists would point out several government initiatives that aimed to raise female achievement in education.

GIST and WISE in education

In the 1970s and 1980s, the Conservative government launched initiatives to raise awareness of gender inequalities in education and encourage women and girls to study science and technology subjects. These are Girls into Science and Technology (GIST) and Women into Science and Engineering (WISE).

Science and Mathematics were not compulsory subjects until the introduction of the National Curriculum by the Education Reform Act of 1988. Not many girls studied Mathematics and Sciences; they were more likely to choose Home Economics and subjects that were seen as preparation for motherhood and wifehood.

WISE is still in operation today, helping women into STEM roles and celebrating their achievements.

Fig. 2 - Girls have been encouraged to go into traditionally male subjects such as science and technology.

As it exists today, education promotes equality and individual autonomy by giving pupils and students choice and a voice. Girls can choose what they want to study and are encouraged to advocate for themselves.

An evaluation of liberal feminist theory of education

• Due to legal changes, there are now more roles for women and girls in education.

• Subject choices are still gendered; girls are more likely to choose English and Humanities subjects. Also, fewer girls go into STEM than boys.

• Liberal feminists recognise the work and achievements of women and girls. Yet, they underestimate the impact teachers have on the formation of gender identity. It has been found teachers would reprimand boys for 'behaving like a girl', while also teasing boys if they underperformed.

• Michelle Stanworth (1983) found that gender bias still exists. Teachers have higher expectations for boys than girls, and are more likely to encourage boys to further their education than girls on the same level.

• Legal changes do not address cultural or ideological issues.

Radical feminist view of education

Radical feminists argue that education is a patriarchal social institution. They believe the role of education is to reinforce patriarchal ideology and normalise the oppression of women and girls. Radical feminists assert that men and boys are naturally inclined to exploit and oppress women and girls, who are taught to work a triple burden shift.

Radical feminists believe the education system needs a massive restructuring. They argue that even with the legal changes pushed by liberal feminists, gender stereotyping is still pervasive in education.

Gender stereotyping in schools

• Schools socialise children into gender roles.

• Girls are stereotyped as being more emotionally mature than boys.

• They are also seen as quiet and docile, while boys are seen stereotyped as being emotionally immature and dominant.

• Gender stereotyping teaches girls to be submissive and boys to dominate.

Kelly (1987), while exploring textbooks, found women were often portrayed to be reliant upon men or, such as in the case of many science textbooks, women were completely absent.

Subject choice in education

The tripartite system, a sorting system that allocated pupils into three different secondary schools (grammar schools, technical schools and modern schools), was implemented by the Education Act 1944. In the 1960s, boys were offered a wide range of vocational subjects in the tripartite system, while girls were excluded. The curriculum centred on boys and men and prioritised their education.

There have been considerable improvements in girls’ education, but subject choices are still gendered. Boys and men still dominate sciences; historically, science has been used to justify limiting women and girls’ bodily autonomy.

The underachievement of boys in school

Radical feminists see concerns over the underachievement of boys as a moral panic.

The idea that a feminised curriculum contributes to boys' underachievement is sexist; society does not want to celebrate girls' achievements and still sees them as a threat. In addition, boys are still improving and dominating STEM subjects.

Gendered violence in school

Girls are subjected to many normalised forms of inequalities and violence. Kat Banyard (2010) found that sexual bullying and harassment are widespread in schools, and 37% of girls at mixed-sex schools have been sexually harassed while at school. Banyard suggests this happens because of power; boys want power over girls.

Education and schools have been accused of creating a culture of impunity; this is when people can do whatever they want because they know they will not face any consequences for their actions.

Learning support in education

Girls are under diagnosed with learning and developmental disabilities such as autism. Autism has long been considered a male condition, and most studies on autism focus on boys. Many autistic girls receive a late diagnosis and do not get the support in schools they need.

• Despite the gender disparities, girls still outperform boys across all the key stages in education.

• Radical feminists recognise how the hidden curriculum, normalises gender violence in schools, influences subject choice and perpetuates inequalities.

• Radical feminists are criticised for centring on white children; the underachievement of Black boys, particularly Afro-Caribbean boys is largely ignored. Institutional racism and western ideas of masculinity have contributed to Afro-Caribbean boys' mistreatment in schools and low attainment levels.

• Radical feminists ignore how white women use the patriarchy to exert power over non-white men and boys.

• The experiences of non-white girls in the education system are ignored, despite them experiencing both racism and sexism.

• Some feminists believe that boys and men are not naturally inclined to exploit and oppress women and accused Radical feminism of being essentialist. Biological essentialism is the ideological belief that people are the way they are because of their biology, chromosomes and the sex they were assigned at birth.

• Some feminists argue that there are multiple femininities and not every girl's experiences are the same. Radical feminists' idea of femininity is racist, western-centric and transphobic. Radical feminists want an education system that only centres on white western cisgender women's experiences and views of girlhood and femininity.

Fig. 3 - Radical feminists believe the role of education is to reinforce patriarchal ideology and normalise the oppression of women and girls.

Marxist and socialist feminist views of education

Marxist and socialist feminists argue that women/girls were the first oppressed class. They reject the idea of “woman” being a natural category and the oppression of women being a natural biological and evolutionary consequence.

Marxists and socialist feminists are largely critical of the education system. They argue that education socialises girls to become and accept their roles as wives, mothers and sisters within nuclear families.

As capitalism is both an economic and cultural system, women and girls are oppressed economically and culturally. The purpose of education is to transmit capitalist social practices, norms and values, which uphold the oppression of women and girls.

Through the hidden and formal curriculum, girls are taught to internalise biological deterministic ideas of gender, which position them as inferior to men. Biological determinism is the belief that our genetics dictates our behaviour and characteristics.

Class traitors in education

Marxist and socialist feminists assert that not all women’s experiences of patriarchy are the same and not all have the same class position or interests. Some women do not wish to challenge patriarchal assumptions as it could threaten their class position.

They are referred to as class traitors; people who work against the interests of their own class. The little resources afforded to women are unequally allocated to the middle class and girls are educated to be decorative, marriageable beings and exploit working-class women.

Hegemonic masculinity in the classroom

Marxist and socialist feminists recognise that although men and boys benefit the most from patriarchy, it also harms them. Schools impose European capitalist ideas of masculinity on boys and punish femininity. Boys who display feminine characteristics are bullied.

Participating in sports is still considered a masculine trait. Sports also teach boys how to be competitive and dominant, a quality and skill that is valued by capitalist societies.

An evaluation of Marxist and socialist feminist theories of education

• Radical feminists would say Marxist and Socialist feminists let men off the hook. Patriarchy may also harm men, but they still uphold it. Focusing on men and boys is a distraction, as curriculums still cater to them.

• Radical feminists also believe men may not be class traitors, but they are class enemies. Schools may teach boys and girls to collaborate, but outside school, the glass ceiling still exists.

• Some view this approach as impractical, they believe we will not overthrow capitalism anytime soon, so we should come up with practical solutions and focus on changing laws and legislation.

• Marxist and socialist feminists acknowledge the sexual politics of schooling and how it intersects with economic aspirations.