Whether it's to apply for a learner's permit or to fill out financial forms for college, the chances of you coming across bureaucracies are very high. We deal with them all the time, but how much do we know about them?
Although we may take concepts like hierarchy and efficiency for granted, there's a reason we're so familiar with them! We'll be looking at bureaucracies today and how they operate.
- First, we'll start with the context behind studying bureaucracies in sociology, looking mainly at formal organizations.
- We'll then move on to bureaucracies themselves and consider a definition as well as some types of bureaucracies.
- Next, we'll look at some characteristics of bureaucracies in sociology as outlined by Max Weber.
- Lastly, we'll examine the benefits and problems with bureaucracies.
Let's get started.
Studying Bureaucracy in Sociology
The study of bureaucracies in sociology is set in the context of formal organizations and how they operate, as bureaucracies are a type of formal organization. Before we move on to bureaucracies, let's look at formal organizations.
What is a Formal Organization?
Let's look at a definition.
A formal organization is "an impersonal organization that is typically large and highly structured, formed to achieve explicit long-term objectives and designed to maximize efficiency."1
Formal organizations exist for a variety of reasons, have different levels of efficiency, and come in different sizes. However, they are all designed to manage large-scale operations.
In modern society, formal organizations are integral to our needs, whether we realize this or not. They influence all of our lives and actions.
Due to the increase in and influence of formal organizations, we now have organizations dedicated to supervising and regulating them! An example of this is the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which regulates brokerage companies.
According to Azumi and Hage (1972) and Etzioni (1964), it is more accurate to state that we live in "an age of formal organization" instead of a "computer age".
In addition, sociologists have found that factors such as race, gender, and ethnicity affect how we perceive ourselves in formal organizations.
A study by Ely (1995) found that the self-image of women working in law firms differed based on how many women were in positions of power and authority. Where there was a better representation of women in power, female lawyers had a more prominent desire for promotion.
Examples of formal organizations include the US Postal Service and McDonald's. Other types of organizations, such as those in healthcare, business (and, of course, governments), are also formal organizations.
Types of Formal Organizations
According to sociologist Amitai Etzioni (1975), there are three categories of formal organizations. We'll go over these below.
Normative or Voluntary Organizations
Normative or voluntary organizations are grouped by common interests and causes. There is no tangible benefit to membership, meaning there is no 'reward' for it. Membership is, as the name suggests, voluntary. An example of a voluntary organization is a ski club.
Coercive Organizations
Coercive organizations, as suggested by the name, are organizations where the members were made to join; examples include a rehabilitation center, mental health facility, or prison. The benefit of such organizations is corrective, namely, to 'fix' or address an issue of some nature.
According to symbolic interactionist Erving Goffman (1961), most coercive organizations are what he calls total institutions. This means that members experience a restricted lifestyle and are resocialized.
Utilitarian Organizations
Utilitarian organizations have members seeking some material reward or goal; unlike voluntary organizations, the benefit is tangible.
Simple examples of such organizations include schools, colleges, and workplaces. In the first two examples, the material reward is a high school diploma and a college degree; in the workplace, the material reward is money. Members may have some common interests, but this isn't a requirement for membership.
Fig. 1 - The US government has around 2,000 bureaucracies in the form of the federal government.
Bureaucracies: Definition
Now that we're familiar with formal organizations, we can consider another type: bureaucracies. Let's look at a definition.
A bureaucracy is a type of formal organization which utilizes rules and hierarchy to achieve its goals efficiently.
Moreover, a bureaucracy is commonly where people associate their frustrations with 'red tape' - administrative matters, forms, protocols, and technical jargon. Those who work in bureaucracies are called bureaucrats.
Examples of Bureaucracies in the US
We may not realize it, but we face bureaucracies in everyday life. The US government has around 2,000 bureaucracies in the form of the federal government:
- Agencies
- Departments
- Commissions
- Divisions
- Committees
Some well-known examples of such bureaucracies include the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), a sub-agency where people can file taxes, and the Social Security Administration (SSA), an independent agency responsible for administering Social Security numbers.
Types of Bureaucracy
Bureaucracies can be categorized into two different types: formal and informal bureaucracies.
Formal Bureaucracies as a Type of Bureaucracy
Formal bureaucracies contain rules that are explicitly written, laid out, and enforced by the organization. There is little room for flexibility as they follow a hierarchical structure and are rigidly followed.
Informal Bureaucracies as a Type of Bureaucracy
On the other hand, informal bureaucracies don't have a formalized set of rules - they operate through agreements between those who work together. These agreements may include unwritten, unofficial norms about decision-making and information sharing.
The Characteristics of a Bureaucracy in Sociology: Max Weber
Although there are many sociological insights as to the characteristics of bureaucracies, a well-known perspective is that of Max Weber (1947). Weber characterized a bureaucracy as having five main principles:
- Division of labor and task specialization
- Hierarchy of authority
- Written rules, regulations, and requirements
- Impersonality
- Meritocracy
Some consider there to be six principles, the sixth being career orientation.
These principles, according to Weber, form an ideal type of bureaucracy. In this context, ideal doesn't mean 'best' or 'most preferred'; it refers to a general model, one that covers many bureaucracies. Not all bureaucracies will embody all five principles.
If you're asked to picture and describe a house, you might respond with the general characteristics of a house, such as four walls, a door, windows, etc. However, it doesn't mean that your imagined house will look the same as your friend's imagined house.
Yours may be a large mansion, and theirs may be a bungalow, for example - regardless, the general idea of a house is the same and is, therefore, the ideal type.
Let's go through the five principles of bureaucracies to understand how they form a bureaucracy.
Division of Labor and Task Specialization
If you ask your teacher a question about how to fill out a form for school, they'll probably tell you to ask someone else. If you ask your guidance counselor when your assignment is due, they'll most likely tell you to ask your teacher.
A key principle of bureaucracies is that everyone has their own job to do, and they only do that job. The division of labor is clear, and tasks are specialized according to individuals' jobs. By doing this, people can do their job with the highest efficiency level and become skilled at what they do.
Conflict theorists such as Marx and Engels claim that this can lead to extreme alienation, where workers dissociate from their job and society because work is very fragmented and workers are divided.
Hierarchy of Authority
A server can't give you a day off or schedule your work rota; that's the job of a manager. Bureaucracies follow a hierarchy of authority, where each person answers to their superior.
Everyone answers to someone; in a school, the students answer to the teachers, who answer to their department heads, who answer to the principal, who answers to the board members, and so on. This is a principle most of us are familiar with and accept without question.
Written Rules, Regulations, and Requirements
If your manager made you redundant for asking for a day off, you might protest that they can't do that. Most likely, you'd refer to some written rules or ask the manager to prove that they are allowed to do such a thing.
There are usually clearly written rules, regulations, and requirements so that these situations are standardized. Your college student handbook might set out rules about various academic practices, such as citations, plagiarism, and so on. Once you are employed, you may also receive an employee handbook.
Impersonality
How would you feel if your manager gave their niece or nephew a job without interviewing them or making them go through any part of the job-hunting process?
Impersonality in bureaucracies ensures there are no personal feelings in professional situations and/or decision-making. This means that members of a bureaucracy carry out their jobs without giving personal attention or consideration to individuals. Weber called this sine ira et studio, which means "without hatred or passion".
This principle arose from the need to protect members of (especially large) bureaucracies from favoritism and nepotism and to ensure all customers/clients are treated equally.
Fig. 1 - Bureaucracies are known to be slow, inflexible, technically complex and restricted by 'red tape'.
Meritocracy
As a manager, your choices would most likely be questioned if you hired a college student to do the same job that a person with a Master's degree does. Especially if having that Master's degree is necessary for the job!
The principle of meritocracy, also referred to as employing based on technical qualifications, asserts that in ideal bureaucracies, hiring is based on qualifications and experience rather than favoritism or nepotism. These qualifications should be documented, proven, and measured using certain standards.
Bureaucracies should follow a formal selection process and issue performance-based rewards.
Max Weber wasn't the only one who theorized about bureaucracies. Other models of bureaucracies include the:
- Acquisitive,
- Monopolistic,
- Enabling, and
- Coercive models.
Let's move on to analyze bureaucracies.
What Are some Benefits of Bureaucracies?
Bureaucracies are designed to increase efficiency.
They ensure equal work opportunities by serving as many people as possible.
Hierarchies can provide structure and certainty, as upper management can control and make any changes deemed necessary.
The official nature of rules and protocols ensures consistent and efficient work by employees.
For large organizations, bureaucracies allow for relatively easy decision-making and resource allocation.
The specialization of tasks ensures that everyone knows what is in the scope of their job and that they can become good at it.
What Are some Problems with Bureaucracies?
Some argue that impersonality has led to large bureaucracies appearing cold, mechanical, and uncaring towards individuals, communities, and other businesses.
As mentioned above, bureaucracies are known to be slow, inflexible, technically complex, and restricted by 'red tape'.
Some argue that bureaucracies were critical during the Industrial Revolution, for example, as mass production and chains of command were essential. However, in the information age, many argue that sticking to rigid protocols can decrease efficiency and productivity.
Moreover, modern workplaces need quicker turnarounds, changes, and more flexibility, aspects in which traditional bureaucracies may lag.
The Iron Rule of Oligarchy
According to Michels (1911), all large organizations are characterized by what he calls the Iron Rule of Oligarchy. This means that a small group of elites controls the organizations. In his 1915 studies of European socialist parties and labor unions, he noted that even democratic organizations can become bureaucracies ruled by a few (oligarchies).
The Human Relations Approach to Bureaucracies
Theorists began to look at alternative ways of looking at bureaucratic dynamics - one way is using the human relations approach. This approach looks at people, communication, and the workers' job satisfaction.
Bureaucracy Case Study: McDonaldization
Ritzer (1993) discussed the McDonaldization of Society by referring to the increase in fast food businesses. We can compare these fast food business models to the ideal model of bureaucracies, as they display many of the same principles (and more):
Efficiency - in grocery stores, displayed goods are sold to customers and are restocked by workers when needed
Predictability - no matter which Walmart you go to, you'll probably see the same kind of goods and products, similar store organization, and similar prices.
Calculability - customers know exactly how much they are paying for their goods (e.g., weighing a bag of lemons) and employees can calculate their hours and overtime pay.
Control - employees are easily identifiable with uniforms and name tags, and only they are allowed into certain areas of the store, e.g. as the stockroom. There are also cameras everywhere to monitor behavior.
A clear hierarchy of authority - upwards from the food worker, shift manager, store operator, and to the board of directors.
Written rules and regulations - workers are given instructions on how to prepare food, including the amount of sauce to put on a burger, how many chicken nuggets are in each box, etc.
Impersonality - there is little personal, meaningful interaction between workers and customers, as efficiency is prioritized, and workers should serve as many people as possible.
Although McDonaldization may have increased efficiency, profits, and predictability, it has reduced originality and uniqueness. Everything is mass-produced, generic, and uniform. This can apply to a range of areas outside the food service industry, such as the fast fashion industry (cheap, mass-produced clothing made with low-quality materials).
Bureaucracies - Key takeaways
References
- Sociology Dictionary, n.d. Formal Organization. Open Education Sociology Dictionary. https://sociologydictionary.org/formal-organization/#:~:text=of%20Formal%20Organization-,Definition%20of%20Formal%20Organization,and%20designed%20to%20maximize%20efficiency
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Some well-known examples of US bureaucracies include the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), a sub-agency where people can file their taxes and the Social Security Administration (SSA), an independent agency responsible for administering Social Security numbers.