Power is experienced in many aspects of society, from family life to politics. Sociologists find it important to look at power and the inequalities it replicates. It's also vital to explore how this affects different social groups.
Power: definition
We can explore the idea of what power is when looking at the work of Marxist Max Weber (1947). Weber's work was based on the study of power and became very influential for later sociologists.
Weber stated that power is the ability for an individual or group to get what they want even when facing opposition.
We can follow Weber's early work on power when exploring its relationship with authority:
Types of power: power and authority
There are two main types of power in society, highlighted by sociologists Weber and Walby. They are power and authority and power relationships. We will explore these further below. Let's start with power and authority.
Weber saw the main elements of power as authority and coercion. We obey authorities in society, such as the police, because we are socialised to believe this is the correct thing to do. This differs from the idea of coercive power.
Coercive power exists when an individual or group has to use force to get what they want; it goes against our free will. The difference between authoritative and coercive power is important to distinguish.
Social power theory
Weber identified three legitimate categories of authority. This is known as social power theory. They include:
Rational legal authority
Rational legal authority refers to when we respect power due to the acceptance of certain rules or laws. We are willing to obey because we agree with the rationality of the set of laws. For example, we may willingly accept the authoritative power of our bosses as we agreed on this in our contract.
Rational legal authority happens within a societal hierarchy which we are often socialised to accept.
Traditional authority
Traditional authority is the idea that we accept the authority of a person based on tradition. There are many examples of this but we can look at how major religious figures, such as the Pope, are obeyed in Catholicism because it's traditional to respect them. Traditional authority varies between cultures as they hold different customary beliefs.
Charismatic authority
Charismatic authority relates to when we willingly obey an authoritative figure because we admire their qualities. For example, some political leaders inspire their followers to vote for them with charismatic authority; they become popular due to their respectable personalities.
It's important to note that these three types of authority are not mutually exclusive. A person of power can exude several types of authority at once; this often furthers their power in society.
Different types of people exude different types of power.
What type of authoritative power(s) do you think the British Royal Family execute? Why?
Some sociologists argue that authoritative power reduces life chances for certain social groups. This is because those in authority can discriminate against people of different classes, sexualities, genders, disabilities, ages and races. From a place of power, this discrimination holds more meaning and can be very detrimental.
Types of power: power relationships
Now that we have looked at power and authority, we will consider power relationships. Power occurs in relationships when someone tries to influence another individual. It can also occur when there is a clear power imbalance, such as in the relationship between a parent and a child.
It's important to see how different social groups are influenced by relationships and the power that is held over them. Some social groups are more susceptible to power imbalances than others.
The power relationship between the police and young, black youths is very disproportionate. The police have a much higher amount of power and therefore the youths are more vulnerable to the use of power in a discriminative manner.
Feminist power perspectives
Women are also a much more vulnerable group to the influence of power in certain societal relations. Sylvia Walby (1990) focused her feminist studies on gender inequalities in society. She explored the relationship between power and the patriarchy, coming up with six structures which lead men to 'exploit, dominate and oppress' women:
Paid work
Women's opportunities in the labour market are inferior to those of men. The gender pay gap shows us that women typically earn less than their male counterparts. Traditional cultural values, such as being a housewife, have left them at this disadvantage and their opportunities are restricted. Some women feel that their pay is so low, that there's no point in working. This greatly lowers women's life chances.
It's important to note that the Sex Discrimination Act (1984) and the Equal Pay Act (1963) are attempts by those in governmental power to help reverse the patriarchy; however, women are still far underpaid than men.
Household labour
Walby suggested that another patriarchal structure is the division of labour in the household. Men are exploiting women in the home, by benefitting from their unpaid labour. Duncombe and Marsden (1995) coined this term the triple shift. Where women are expected to conduct three jobs: paid work, housework and emotional work. Men do not have this expectation.
Patriarchal culture
Our societal culture greatly differentiates between both masculinity and femininity. These social expectations enforce different standards depending on gender. Walby pointed out that femininity is seen solely as being sexually attractive to men.
This raises issues, in particular with women who do not identify as heterosexual and therefore don't desire to be attractive to men. Sexualities which are not heterosexual are often not accepted in our patriarchal society and therefore women who are not sexually attracted to men often face worse life chances.
Sexuality
Women now experience much more sexual freedom than previous generations, however, they do this under scrutiny. Men who sleep with multiple people are often praised by other men, whereas women with multiple partners are frowned upon. These double standards perpetuate male dominance in our society.
Male violence
Violence against women has been a great issue for many years. This threat of male violence discourages women from standing up against the patriarchy, for fear of being hurt. The patriarchal state often fails to intervene.
According to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) in the year to September 2021, 63,136 rape cases were recorded in England and Wales; only 1,557 of these were prosecuted. The low involvement from the state furthers women's fears of male violence and therefore suppresses them into the patriarchy.
The state
The state is far less patriarchal than it used to be, however, there is rarely new legislation in place to protect women from the patriarchy. For example, equal pay has still not been attained and the laws in place to help achieve equality in the workplace are rarely enforced.
Women with disabilities face further issues, as they are more likely to be discriminated against. There is more legislation in place to protect women with disabilities from discrimination.
Walby found it important to note the shift that Western patriarchy has undergone in recent years. Women used to be controlled exclusively by their fathers or husbands, yet now they are controlled more widely. Instead of being controlled by male individuals, women now face a 'public patriarchy' which separates them into low paying, jobs in which they become exploited by society.
The patriarchy has been historically oppressive towards women.
Examples of power: politics
The main area of society where power is prevalent is within politics. The UK has a democratic political system, meaning that it's 'governed by the people'. This system works by residents electing representatives who they believe represent their political views the most. Representatives often use charismatic authority to gain votes. Power is often executed by the state.
The state refers to different sectors which are authoritative to society: army, police, civil service and judiciary.
But democratic power is not the only example of a political system.
Dictatorships are used and focus on ruling with force by a specific individual, the dictator. In a dictatorship, power is used to censor media outlets and promote propaganda which supports the leading dictator. An example of a modern dictatorship is the ruling in North Korea. Those living under a dictatorship often have reduced life chances.
How do you think the state power varies between North Korea and the United Kingdom?
Theories of power in sociology
It's important to understand how the three main sociological perspectives view power in society, concerning both authority and relationships:
Functionalism
Functionalists see power as a positive thing for society. By having authoritative figures, social control is maintained and the norms and values of society are upheld. Power in social relationships benefits society further by teaching us who we should look up to and who to obey.
By obeying rules and powerful figures in society, society runs smoother because everybody is following the same agenda. Functionalists like the idea of traditional authority, as it maintains customary beliefs which can be passed down generations to help society maintain its rhythm.
Marxism
Marxists disagree with this perspective as they see power and social class as having very close connections. Those in higher classes have more power. Weber saw social class as stemming from people's positions in the market economy and the market situation of an individual. He described those in the same class as sharing similar life chances.
Weber also argues that the state acts as an authority in favour of the bourgeoisie.
Furthermore, they believe that we are socialised into believing that power and authority are rational. Whereas in reality, this is a ploy by the bourgeoisie to remain in power. They see rational legal authority as acceptance by the proletariat of their roles. This leaves those of a lower social class as having worse life chances.
Feminism
Feminists argue that as men have traditionally been more respected than women, their authoritative power is likely to be higher. This results in continued patriarchy and lower life chances for women. Power can be abused and women are much more susceptible to this, as a vulnerable social group. They are open to being discriminated against as they are seen as inferior in our patriarchal society.
It's also important to note that women from minority backgrounds are even more likely to be discriminated against, for being female and from an ethnic minority. This depletes their life chances.
What is Power? - Key takeaways
- Max Weber (1947) describes power as power the ability of an individual or group to get what they want even when facing opposition. He believed that power was based on authority or coercion.
- Weber's social power theory identified three types of authoritative power: rational legal authority, traditional authority and charismatic authority.
- Power occurs in relationships when someone tries to influence another individual and Sylvia Walby's (1990) work found six patriarchal structures: paid work, household labour, patriarchal culture, sexuality, male violence and the state.
- Power is often political, and the UK political system is democratic. Other systems use more state-driven power such as dictatorships.
- Functionalists see power as positive, maintaining social control. Marxists disagree as they see power keeps the bourgeoisie ruling the proletariat. Feminists view power as oppressing women through the patriarchy.
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