During your sociology studies, if you haven't already, you are sure to come across some recurring sociological concepts used in theories and research. It is important that you understand not only the meaning of these recurring concepts, but also how they are used and applied in sociological research.
- We will introduce the key terms and concepts in sociology.
- We will consider microsociology and look at key concepts associated with macrosociology.
- We will cover the key concepts of culture, values, norms and socialisation, including primary and secondary.
What are key terms and concepts in sociology?
Some essential concepts and terms in sociology include:
For each term or concept, we will use examples to understand how sociologists may use these in their theories or research.
Let's begin with the key concept of macrosociology.
Fig. 1 - Sociologists use certain key concepts to understand and study societies.
Macrosociology: key concepts
Macrosociology refers to the large-scale approach to studying sociology. Using a macro-sociological approach means sociologists look at the overall structural processes within society. They study the relationships between society and societal processes and systems.
Microsociology: key concepts
In contrast, microsociology studies society using a small-scale approach, such as observing and studying human interactions. Interactionists believe that society should be studied in this way, as individuals shape society and not the other way around. Microsociology focuses on the smaller-scale issues, interactions and processes within society.
Within macrosociology, there are several core terms and concepts that are used to understand society. Let's go over these now.
Culture in macrosociology: key concepts
Culture is a key term often used in macrosociology.
Culture refers to the collective ideas, values, customs, norms, knowledge, and practices of a society.
Culture can vary immensely, not only across societies but also within societies. There are many things that can be attributed to culture, for example:
how liberal or conservative a society might be
what is valued in education
what counts as 'expected' behaviour for hosts and guests of an event
traditions of eating certain food on certain occasions (e.g. Christmas dinners)
how people dress
Sociologists study culture to gain insight into a society's way of life. If they understand the culture, they can better understand how and why people behave the way they do.
In the United States, it is a cultural norm to tip around 20% of the food bill to the waiters or waitresses in restaurants. Whilst this is not compulsory and not added to the bill, it is standard practice in the food service industry, and customers are accustomed to mentally working out how much they should tip. It is considered to be rude if customers do not leave a tip. This practice is often informally referred to as a 'tipping culture'.
On the other hand, such a practice is not part of every culture. In European countries, it is not standard practice to tip unless the customer thoroughly enjoyed the service. If customers choose to tip, they can leave any amount they wish to.
In the above example, if a person living in a European country visits the United States and is unaware of this tipping culture, they may be perceived as a rude customer because they did not follow standard practice. In reality, it is simply a cultural difference.
Studying culture in sociology
Sociologists may choose to study many different aspects of culture across various societies. A few examples of potential topics are:
why some animals are sacred in certain cultures but delicacies in others
how societies perceive different types of clothing
the treatment of vulnerable groups (e.g. women) across different areas of society
which greetings are 'acceptable', e.g. it is not customary in some cultures to shake hands
Some aspects of culture are often linked to the values held by the society. Let's consider the key concept of values.
Values in macrosociology: key concepts
Values can have a great impact on culture. Let's define the concept.
Values refer to the beliefs and ideas that are important to the person or people holding them. Individuals and societies strive to abide by them, and they can refer to personal values held by individuals or collective values held by societies.
For the purposes of understanding the concept in sociology, we will consider values that are held by society. A value can act as a guide for behaviour; due to this, it can be extremely beneficial to study a society's values.
Examples of values
What may be important to one society may not be as important to another. Below are examples of some values that may be held by societies.
Goals and achievements as values
In some societies, materialism and being wealthy is an important value, and it guides people's behaviour and actions. 'The American Dream' is a good example of such a value as it encourages people to take opportunities, work hard and achieve material wealth and stability. The value emphasises that this goal is accessible to everyone.
Religious values
Some societies value religion more than others. For them, it is important that the members of society abide by religious practices because they consider religion to be an important aspect of life. The enforcement of religious values can directly affect day-to-day behaviour in society, such as the way people dress and how they act, e.g. not drinking or eating certain foods.
In a country such as the United Kingdom, religious values are less likely to be followed as it is largely a secular country. Contrast the UK with a country such as Iran, where religion is very important and following religious practices is highly valued and enforced.
Taking care of the elderly as a value
In many societies, adult children are expected to look after their elderly parents. This is because the needs of the elderly are prioritised by such societies. They are also likely to have strong family values and pressures that emphasise that only family should look after family, as it is their duty to do so.
In other societies, it is not uncommon for older people to reside in care homes, which pass on daily care and responsibilities to the state or private company.
Let's now consider norms.
Fig. 2 - Prioritising the elderly is a core value in some societies.
Norms in macrosociology: key concepts
Norms may be slightly easier to define than the previous concepts, and they are also important to sociologists when studying societies.
Norms refer to the standard, customary, or expected behaviours in certain situations.
Norms can be observed through behaviours and can give sociologists great insight into what is expected of people. Examples of norms include:
giving up a bus or train seat for someone more vulnerable, e.g. a pregnant, elderly or disabled person
putting your phone on silent when in a cinema
cleaning up after yourself when using a public place, e.g. a library
not using inappropriate words around children, e.g. swear words
Norms can also vary across societies, for instance:
taking off your shoes before entering someone's house is common in many Asian societies and cultures
dressing 'modestly' around certain people, e.g. women may be expected to cover up and dress in a certain way if there are guests
There may be negative sanctions for failing to follow certain behaviours or protocols. You may be asked to leave or adjust your behaviour, be told off or face some other punishment. On the other hand, there may also be positive sanctions for successfully following norms. This may be praise, a reward or promotion of some kind.
Socialisation in macrosociology: key concepts
You will come across the term 'socialisation' very often in sociology, but it is especially prevalent in the sociology of families and the sociology of education. Let's consider what it means.
Socialisation refers to the process through which we learn our society's culture, norms, and values.
The previous concepts that we have come across can be learned by socialisation. We are taught what to do and what not to do through primary and secondary socialisation.
It is important to understand the difference between these two.
Primary socialisation
Primary socialisation is the process of socialisation that we undergo during the early stages of our lives. At this point, the main institution that is responsible for our socialisation is our family. Through our family, we acquire:
language skills
the ability to be around different people
basic behaviours, such as sharing, having conversations and taking care of yourself
The family, through primary socialisation, equips us with essential and basic life skills that are developed through secondary socialisation.
Secondary socialisation
Secondary socialisation is the process of socialisation that we begin roughly when we start school. It is a lifelong process, as we constantly learn about the wider society's norms and values.
Once we begin the process of secondary socialisation, we interact with various institutions in society that contribute to it. These institutions are referred to as agencies of socialisation, which we will consider below.
Education and socialisation
Education is usually the second agency of socialisation that we encounter after the family; it is frequently the 'door' to the process of secondary socialisation as we begin schooling in early childhood.
Education teaches us not only the curriculum, but also:
Children learn norms, values and new skills that are important to wider society. They will learn, for example, that it is important to be punctual and to dress appropriately. Children are socialised into behaving in ways that are important to society.
Fig. 3 - Secondary socialisation is a lifelong process.
Peer groups/friends and socialisation
Peer groups and/or friends refer to those at a similar stage to you in society. This can include your classmates or friends that are of the same age to you or those that share your interests.
Peer groups can socialise individuals into following certain behaviours through peer pressure or social pressure. You may choose to do something, for example, because your friends are doing it and you wouldn't like being the odd one out.
Religion and socialisation
Religion and religious institutions can play a big part in shaping people's behaviour. Religious rules provide guidelines for what people should do, what they should avoid and how they should practice the religion.
People can learn about wider society and the values held by their religious community by practicing the religion and interacting with other members, such as through youth groups. People can also learn about their place in religion as well as the role of their religion in wider society.
Whilst religion may hold a special place for many people, it is important to remember that the influence of religion is slowly declining in the UK. This process is called secularisation.
The workplace and socialisation
The workplace is an agency of socialisation where an adult can continuously experience socialisation. In a workplace, an individual must follow certain rules, adapt to a workplace culture and collaborate with others.
Media and socialisation
The media is a powerful agency of socialisation, especially for younger people as they approach adulthood. Media is used to inform us about the world and helps us to form our opinions. Films, television series, news media, documentaries, and magazines contribute to our understanding of the wider world as we receive 'messages' from the media.
If we watch an advertisement about lack of clean water in Sierra Leone, we may then receive the 'message' that living conditions in West Africa (or Africa in general) are poor.
We can also experience things such as gender socialisation through the media, e.g. through media platforms that reinforce gender stereotypes.
Key Sociological Concepts - Key takeaways
- Sociology has many recurring key concepts which are important to understand.
- Macrosociology refers to the large-scale approach taken to study sociology. It includes the concepts of culture, values, norms and socialisation.
- Sociologists can study a society's culture, values and norms to understand the society better.
- Socialisation includes primary and secondary socialisation. Secondary socialisation is a lifelong process.
- Agencies of socialisation include the family (for primary socialisation) and education, peer groups, religion, the workplace and the media (for secondary socialisation).
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