We often hear of stories of heroes at battle, their adventures, their struggles, and their triumphs. Rarely are readers privy to what happens to a hero after they've won the war. The Odyssey (8th century BCE) is different. It's an epic poem that tells the story of a famous warrior, Odysseus, who fought in the Trojan War. Odysseus, king of Ithaca, was instrumental in the battle of Troy, which was documented in Homer's other epic, the Illiad (8th century BCE).
Both the Illiad and the Odyssey are some of the greatest, and oldest works of the Western world. While the Illiad is about the Trojan War and the famed Greek hero and warrior Achilles, the Odyssey focuses on the king of Ithaca's journey home after the war. Taking place after the battle of Troy, the Odyssey shares the trials and tribulations of a king who has been gone from his land and family for twenty years.
An epic poem is a lengthy narrative poem that was typically delivered as a ceremonial performance. It uses elevated language to honor the subject-matter and the heroic subject. Traveling bards, called rhapsodes, were often commissioned to perform these narratives for royalty or during celebrations. The best bards were highly sought after for their skills. As such, some kings would have their eyes gouged out to prevent them from wandering and keep their skills within the province.1
The Odyssey at a Glance
| Title | the Odyssey |
| Written | Homer |
| Date first published | first published in English in 1616 |
| Genre | Epic poem |
| Tone | Dejected and somber, to celebratory and elevated |
| Setting | The Mediterranean sea and surrounding area, ten years following the fall of Troy, around 12th century B.C. |
| Protagonist | Odysseus, king of Ithaca |
| Theme | Hospitality, loyalty, appearance vs. reality, wandering |
The Odyssey Summary
Following tradition, the epic begins with an invocation to the muses, and asks for support and guidance in telling a tale of such vast importance. The Odyssey follows the story of the king of Ithaca's journey home after the fall of Troy. Odysseus left his land and wife to join the battle of Troy on the day his son, Telemachus, was born. The battle of Troy lasted 10 years, and Odysseus has been struggling for ten years to get home.
In the meantime, Telemachus has grown into a man about 20 years old. Odysseus's wife, Penelope, has struggled to maintain the rule of the land. Suitors, a group of men looking to usurp the throne by marrying Penelope, have overrun the place Odysseus called home. Led by Antinous and Eurymachus, two arrogant and deceitful suitors, the horde of men has pillaged Ithaca and pressured Penelope to remarry since they are all but certain that Odysseus is dead. They plan to assassinate Telemachus as the young prince is next in line to rule Ithaca.
Through a third-person omniscient narrator, and from Odysseus himself, we learn how he has been held captive by the nymph Calypso, and understand how he has struggled to sail and get home by battling sea creatures, avoiding the call of the sirens, appeasing the gods, outsmarting a cyclops, and overcoming the temptations of distant fantastical lands. Upon Odysseus's arrival back to Ithaca, he must come to terms with the passage of time since he left, prove himself to his wife, and work with his son to rid his home of the disrespectful and unruly suitors.
An invocation is a literary convention of classic literature and epic poems in which the narrator or narrative voice asks for support and inspiration from one or several muses or a deity to recount a tale. The Greeks believed the muses to be the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (the goddess of Memory). The muse typically associated with epic poetry is Calliope.
The tone of the epic poem changes several times throughout the piece. It begins with a sense of hopelessness for the hero, who has been lost for ten years. The piece begins somberly, as he is imprisoned by Calypso and yearns for a release.
Odysseus captive, luckless man—despite his tears,
forever trying to spellbind his heart with suave,
seductive words and wipe all thought of Ithaca from his mind.
But he, straining for no more than a glimpse of hearth-smoke
drifting up from his own land,
Odysseus longs to die …
(Book I)
Though uncharacteristic of an epic hero, Odysseus is so homesick and hopeless that he longs for death. As the tale progresses, we see Odysseus persevere by fighting for his life until he reaches Ithaca. The tone becomes celebratory as Odysseus is happily reunited with his wife, Penelope, to share their stories.
But the royal couple,
once they’d reveled in all the longed-for joys of love,
reveled in each other’s stories
(Book XXIII)
Fig. 1 - Odysseus must sail the Mediterranean Sea to get back home, save his wife and son, and reclaim his throne before it is too late
The Story of Homer's Odyssey
The Odyssey has a much more complex story structure than Homer's earlier piece, the Illiad. By using two different narrators (the omniscient narrator and Odysseus), the epic moves back and forth from present day to past experiences through a series of flashbacks. This style of narration is not as linear, and mirrors the complexity of the situation Odysseus is in, and of the character himself. Through the tales and from what we know of his participation in the Illiad, Odysseus is a complex, cunning, and more cerebral character than the typical hero.
An omniscient narrator is a narrative voice that is all-knowing. This gives the reader a more thorough understanding of the actions and characters.
Greek deities also play a pivotal role in this epic, with gods like Athena, goddess of war and wisdom, working to persuade the other gods to help Odysseus. The goddess even appears to Odysseus in disguise to help him get home and regain his throne.
The ancient Greeks believed the gods would meddle, and intervene, in the daily lives of humankind and often interact with humans. This idea of divine intervention helped the Greeks remain aware of how they treated one another and strangers, because at any point in time the person they were interacting with could be a deity in disguise.
The Odyssey Books
The Odyssey is separated into different sections called books. In all, there are 24 books. After the invocation, the story begins in the middle of action, or "in medias res" which is Latin for "in the middle of things." Odysseus, the title character, does not appear until Book 5.
Books 1-4
Books 1-4 introduce the secondary plot in the Odyssey, and focus on Odysseus's son, Telemachus, and his struggles. The goddess Athena appears to Telemachus in disguise and advises him to gather leaders on Ithaca, sail to some of Odysseus's old allies—King Nestor and King Menelaus—to learn of any information regarding Odysseus and his whereabouts.
Telemachus addresses his mother's suitors, but they are angry and rebellious. Penelope, Odysseus's wife and Queen of Ithaca, will not choose a new husband. Her son sets sail secretly to gather news of his father. Telemachus learns little from King Nestor but is encouraged when the king of Sparta, King Menelaus, explains Odysseus has been held captive by Calypso, a nymph, on her island.
Books 5-8
After Athena's recommendation, the gods have sent word to Calypso via Hermes to release Odysseus. He has been held captive on her island for 7 years. She is in love with him, wants to marry him, and grant him immortality, but he yearns to return to his wife, Penelope, and their home on Ithaca. Calypso reluctantly releases him, giving him the supplies to make a raft and sail home.
The god of the sea, Poseidon, angry with Odysseus for blinding his son Polyphemus, shipwrecks Odysseus on Phaeacia. The hospitable king and queen welcome him, and urge Odysseus to tell his tale.
Books 9-12
Books 9-12 are tales recounted by Odysseus through flashbacks, and they are perhaps the most famous of the epic. He recounts several adventures, and details how he is now without ship or men to help sail home.
A flashback is a scene within literature that recounts a story, memory, or experience and interrupts the natural and chronological flow of the narrative. This artistic strategy often helps explain character motives, and is typically pertinent to the plot and the current events within the narrative.
In summary, his adventures are:
The land of the lotus-eaters
Because of a storm Athena caused after being angry with the Greeks for disrespecting her temple, Odysseus and his men are washed ashore on the Land of the Lotus-eaters. The Lotus-eaters are a peaceful people, but are obsessed with consuming the lotus plant. If eaten, the lotus plant takes away all other ambition and memory. The lotus eaters are obsessed with and are driven to eat the lotus. Odysseus narrowly escapes the island with his men.
The cyclops
Travelling on, Odysseus and his men decide to explore the land of the Cyclops. Compelled by curiosity, they wander the island. The Cyclops live in isolation, are gruff beings, and are cannibalistic. One of the one-eyed, giants, Polyphemus, traps Odysseus and his men within his cave. With plans to eat them (while succeeding in eating a few) Polyphemus places a giant boulder at the cave's entrance, refusing to let the men go. After gorging himself on men and drink, Polyphemus, who is also Poseidon's son, falls asleep.
Odysseus whittles a large stake, and tricks Polyphemus by refusing to provide the giant with his name. After blinding Polyphemus and tying his men to the undercarriage of the shepherd's goats, Odysseus and his men escape. From the boat, Odysseus brags, yelling to a blinded cyclops writhing in pain, that it was he, a mere mortal, that blinded Polyphemus. This arrogant brag and cruel act angers Poseidon, god of the ocean and Polyphemus's father.
Fig. 2 - Odysseus outsmarts the cyclops, Polyphemus, and blinds him.
The enchantress
Odysseus's men had released the trapped wind from a bag gifted to Odysseus by the wind god, yet survived the resulting wind storm. They then survived the cannibalistic Laestrygonians and the Greeks landed on island of Aeaea, home of the enchantress Circe. Angry with this disturbance, Circe turns many of Odysseus's men into pigs. Following the advice of Hermes, Odysseus outsmarts her and becomes her lover. She reverses the curse she placed on his men. A year later, Circe helps Odysseus and his men leave, but advises him to travel to the Land of the Dead.
Following her advice, Odysseus travels to the Land of the Dead where he sees several Greek heroes that he knew well, visits with his mother, and meets with the blind prophet Tiresias. Tiresias tells Odysseus that all his men will die, save for him, if they harm even one of Helios's beloved cows. Helios is the Greek god of the sun, and is typically portrayed as a kind and gentle god who loves his prized cattle above all and shines the sun daily, just to admire the heifers.
Did you know that the hero's trip into the underworld is an epic convention known as katabasis? The trip usually results in the hero retrieving an artifact, saving a loved one, or gaining important knowledge or insight. Can you think of another piece of literature where the hero must travel to the underworld?
Sea monsters
Yearning to hear the famed song of the sirens (beautiful women of the sea who lure and hypnotize men with their tunes), Odysseus plugs his crew's ears with beeswax and instructs his men to tie him to the mast and not release him until their ship is safely away from the siren's song. Once safe, his men release him. They battle and make it past the six-headed sea monster, Scylla, and Charybdis, a ship-devouring sea monster, much like a whirlpool.
Scylla and Charybdis are the figurative representation of the real dangers Greek mariners faced in the open waters of the Mediterranean. The popular Greek idiomatic phrase "between Scylla and Charybdis" means to be between two unfavorable choices, or stuck in a difficult situation. It is akin to the modern idiomatic phrase "stuck between a rock and a hard place."
The island of Helios
After surviving the sea monsters, the crew arrives on the island of Helios, the Sun god. Odysseus warns his men to stay away from the god's prized cattle, and then he falls asleep. Later, Odysseus awakes to the smell of cooking meat and finds the men have disobeyed the warning and feasted on the cattle. Angered by their disobedience, Zeus is asked to destroy their ship, and it kills all but Odysseus. Odysseus washes ashore on Calypso's island.
Calypso's island
The amorous goddess nymph Calypso keeps Odysseus captive and as her lover for 7 years before she is forced by the gods to release him. During his time on the island, Odysseus spends his nights with Calypso but his days pining to be back home on his land with his beloved wife.
Fig. 3 - Odysseus sailed on a ship and was tied to the center mast by his men to avoid the deadly siren song.
Books 13-24
Books 13-24 of the Odyssey are concerned with Odysseus's return to Ithaca. As their custom, the kind Phaeacians sail Odysseus back to Ithaca after he recounts his tale to them. While he travels, Athena helps save Telemachus from the suitors' ambush and arranges for Telemachus to be present when Odysseus arrives.
The Greeks believed that certain gods and goddesses favored certain individuals. The goddess of wisdom, strategy, and battle, Athena, clearly favors Odysseus in the epic poem.
Upon returning, Odysseus reunites with his faithful swineherder, Eumaeus, and his son, Telemachus, who he last saw as a newborn child. Together, they return to Odysseus's palace. With the help of Athena, Odysseus is disguised as a beggar to trick the suitors. In one of the most heartbreaking parts of the Odyssey, Odysseus sees an old neglected dog, infested with ticks, asleep on a pile of dung. It is his old pet, Argos, who immediately recognizes him despite the years past and Odysseus's disguise. As the ultimate sign of loyalty, Argos wags his tail, then dies, happy to have greeted his master one final time.
Fig. 4 - Odysseus's dog, Argos, was his loyal companion and even waited for Odysseus to return before he succumbed to death.
The suitors insult, berate, and throw food at Odysseus, disguised as the beggar. Although Penelope is hesitant to believe her husband has returned, his nurse since he was child immediately recognizes him based on an old scar he has. Penelope, following the plan, challenges the suitors to shoot an arrow through a dozen axes using Odysseus's old bow. She will marry the man who can succeed. All the suitors try, and fail. Odysseus, still disguised as the beggar, attempts the feat and succeeds. He is revealed to the suitors, and he, Telemachus, and a few loyal servants murder all the suitors in a massacre.
Having defeated his foes, Odysseus must now convince his wife that he is who he claims to be. He proves himself to Penelope, by describing their wedding bed, shaped from a single tree still in the ground. It is a symbol of their marriage, their stability, and the core on which they built their home. They are reunited at last.
The Odyssey and Greek Mythology
The Greek gods, goddesses, and mythological creatures create conflict in the epic, and are crucial to the events in the plot. The central characters from Greek mythology in the Odyssey are:
Zeus: He is god of the sky and ruler of the gods. Zeus is brother to Poseidon and Athena's father.
Poseidon: Poseidon is god of the ocean, father to the cylcops Polyphemus, and Zeus's brother.
Athena: Athena is goddess of war, strategy, and wisdom. She is Zeus's daughter, believed to have been born directly from his brain, representing her connection to the intellect.
Polyphemus: Polyphemus is the cylcops blinded by Odysseus, and Poseidon's son.
Scylla and Charybdis: These are two sea monsters that represent the dangers of the ocean.
Circe: Circe is a powerful and beautiful enchantress who can change men into pigs. She keeps Odysseus and his men on her island for a year before releasing them with a warning to visit the underworld.
Calypso: She is a beautiful goddess nymph that is in love with Odysseus and keeps Odysseus captive for seven years. She offers him immortality and marriage, but she releases him to return home when ordered by the gods.
Fig. 5 - The goddess of strategy in battle, Athena is often portrayed with armor and battle gear. She is the goddess of wisdom; and she often has a helmet.
Themes in the Odyssey
Epic poems often have many themes, and the Odyssey is no different. Here are key themes within Homer's the Odyssey:
Hospitality
A very important aspect to Greek life was the idea of hospitality. They believed that it was their duty to treat others in a hospitable manner and that the gods would descend from Mount Olympus to test them. The Greeks never knew if the person at their door was a beggar or a god in disguise.
The notion of hospitality is seen throughout the epic the Odyssey. It was important to be good hosts, and good guests. Those that were bad hosts, such as Polyphemus who trapped and ate his guests, were punished severely. Because he could not see the importance of being hospitable to strangers, he lost his ability to see.
The suitors are an example of the importance of being good guests. By taking advantage of the house Odysseus built, and the kindness extended to them by Penelope and Telemachus, they show their true selves as being selfish, greedy, and ungrateful. They pay the ultimate price for their disrespect when they are killed.
What would your essay discussion on tone, voice, and poetic devices look like if you were explaining a certain theme you have identified in this epic?
Loyalty
Another key concept central to Greek living and the epic is loyalty. The truly loyal individual is rewarded for their loyalty and revered for their character. Argos, the elderly dog, is perhaps the ultimate symbol of loyalty. He waits, no matter his condition, for his owner's return. Argos, clearly infested, emaciated, and resting on a pile of dung when Odysseus arrives, wags his tail and welcomes death.
Infested with ticks, half-dead from neglect, here lay the hound, old Argos. But the moment he sensed Odysseus standing by he thumped his tail, nuzzling low, and his ears dropped, though he had no strength to drag himself an inch toward his master. Odysseus glanced to the side and flicked away a tear
Book IVII
Despite his own suffering and clearly harsh life, Argos, the ever loyal hound, musters up what little strength he has left so show joy at the sight of his owner. He is rewarded with achieving his life's goal of welcoming his master home.
But the dark shadow of death closed down on Argos’ eyes the instant he saw Odysseus, twenty years away.
His goal achieved, Argos is welcomed into death, as though a large warm blanket envelops him. For his loyalty to Odysseus, he is rewarded with death and released from his pains. Argos, a marker of true devotion, is a reminder that even the innocent suffer in life.
Penelope, through her loyalty to Odysseus, is able to fend off the suitors for 20 years.
Not one could touch Penelope for intrigue
Book II
Putting her husband to the proof—but Odysseus blazed up in fury, lashing out at his loyal wife: “Woman—your words, they cut me to the core! Who could move my bed? Impossible task, even for some skilled craftsman—unless a god came down in person, quick to lend a hand, lifted it out with ease and moved it elsewhere.
Book XXIII
Their bed, a symbol of their relationship and love, is immovable. As it was built by Odysseus, only he would know this secret because only he has ever been in their sleeping chambers. His identity proven, Penelope welcomes him with open arms. Being loyal to your family, to your leader, and to those who help you (such as the gods) is a theme central to the epic poem and held as an important trait to the Greeks.
Appearance vs. reality
Throughout the epic poem, a common theme is that of appearance vs. reality. Central to Greek daily life was the idea that the gods could descend from Mount Olympus and test people's character. For those that were hospitable, respectful, and kind, even to the lowliest of beings, the Greeks believed the gods would bless them. Additionally, gods and goddesses would often intervene in the lives of their favored humans, in order to offer support. Athena does this several times throughout the epic poem, most notably to save Telemachus from the scornful suitors.
Playing the role of god himself, Odysseus presents himself to his wife and suitors disguised as a herdsman. Athena effortlessly gives him the power to do this, and in this way he is able to fully understand the true nature of the suitors and the kindness his wife is capable of, despite the trials she has suffered. The mistreatment Odysseus suffers at the hands of the suitors while in disguise gives him justifiable reason to slay them all.
I found Odysseus in the thick of slaughtered corpses; there he stood and all around him, over the beaten floor, the bodies sprawled in heaps, lying one on another …
Book XXIII
Wandering
Central to the Odyssey is the journey of a man wanting to get back home and wandering through life. He has direction, but he is often misled or placed off course. Our epic hero, Odysseus, has been away from home for twenty years and struggles to get back to Ithaca. The wandering he experiences is something that the Greek people would be familiar with. While many soldiers were and sailors were lost at sea, others fell to unknown fates.
The idea that an individual must fulfill their purpose or destiny was a core value for the Greeks. Odysseus's wandering were necessary for him to find and fulfill his purpose. Through his adventures and wanderings he finds himself. The onset of the epic describes a man lost, and suffering:
But my heart breaks for Odysseus, that seasoned veteran cursed by fate so long— far from his loved ones still, he suffers torments
Book I
The Odyssey - Key takeaways
- The Odyssey is the second epic written by Homer.
- The story of the Odyssey follows the king of Ithaca, Odysseus, and his ten-year struggle to return home after the fall of Troy. During his voyage home he encounters: the Cyclops, Scylla and Charybdis, the Lotus Eaters, the Sirens, Circe, and Calypso.
- The themes of hospitality, loyalty, and wandering are pervasive throughout the epic poem.
- The action begins "in medias res", or in the middle of the things.
- There are 24 books in the Odyssey.
1. Lattimore, Richard. The Odyssey of Homer: A Modern Translation. 1967.
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