Critical Theory

If you've ever questioned the role that language can play in the creation of power structures, or considered the impact school curriculums have on a student's identity formation, then you've dabbled with critical theory.

Critical theory can be a tricky concept to wrap your head around because, as the name suggests, it's pretty theoretical and very critical. Here you'll be able to find a definition and explanation of critical theory, the history behind the concept, how it can be applied to language and education, and critiques of the theory.

Critical Theory Definition

Critical theory is a social philosophy that aims to assess and critique embedded power structures within society.

A distinction can be made between critical theory (uncapitalized) and Critical Theory (capitalized). Whereas Critical Theory is an established theory and school of thought from the Frankfurt School, critical theory is a broader term for any discipline taking a critical approach to research and analysis.

Critical Theory and The Frankfurt School

Critical Theory (capitalized) is a school of thought known as The Frankfurt School that began in the 1930s as a way to critique and dismantle the fascist ideologies presented by Nazi Germany at the time. The Frankfurt School is considered a philosophical and sociological movement and eas comprised of theorists, such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm, and more.

Horkheimer presented the first definition of Critical Theory in his 1937 essay entitled 'Traditional and Critical Theory.' He defined Critical Theory as being inherently different from traditional theory in that it aimed to critique and change society rather than simply explain it.

The critical aspect of Critical Theory seeks to highlight societal power structure and injustices and "liberate individuals from the circumstances that enslave them".¹

Critical Theory has roots in Marxism and Kant's concept of Transcendental Idealism in that it critiques the unprovable social, philosophical, political, and economic ideologies that exist within society and questions the validity of ideology that cannot be proven.

Critical Theory as a Discipline

Critical theory (uncapitalized) is a broader approach used across multiple disciplines to challenge power structures within society. The theory works on the basis that prescribed ideology, social structures, and racial and cultural assumptions play a significant role in people's lives and are the main barrier to individual liberation and true democracy.

Critical theorists believe it is necessary to view society as a whole in order to dismantle the 'false consciousness' created by underlying ideologies. To achieve this, critical theory encompasses psychology, sociology, politics, race theory, gender theory, language, and culture.

Fig 1. Critical theory can help us recognize and critique societal structures

Critical theory as an approach is quite broad, so let's look at its key characteristics. Horkheimer (1972) stated that critical theory must be three things: ²

• Explanatory

• Practical

• Normative

By this, he means that the theory must explain what is wrong with society, provide a framework in which to criticize societal injustices, and offer practical ways to change them.

Today, we can see how critical theory has developed into further theories, such as critical race theory and critical language theory.

Critical Theory Language

Critical theory recognizes that nothing can be understood independently and that everything must be placed within its wider socio and historical context to be properly understood. The same principle applies to language. For example, consider a political speech or a textbook; the language used will draw from and build upon preexisting ideologies and 'common knowledge.'

Critical Theory takes a poststructuralist view of language, seeing it as an ever-evolving 'thing' that people do rather than as a finite entity. When we view language as a social activity, we can recognize the inexorable (undeniable) link between language and social structures. Words and language can manipulate how we as a society interpret the world and the structures that exist within it. Critical theory encourages us to question that language and recognize that not everyone will make the same interpretations as us.

To understand the role language plays in power relations and social structures, we must examine personal and public languages for dominant vocabulary, metaphors, and 'spin' that legitimizes the prominent ideology and 'status quo.'

Critical Theory in Education

Critical theory in education focuses on the unequal access to education that certain individuals receive due to their social standing. This could apply to anything from schools in wealthier areas receiving better funding to the different language education students receive worldwide based on their ethnicity, race, or class. Critical theory in education aims to question, reveal, and remove these social barriers.

Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a pioneer in critical pedagogy. His book Pedagogy of the Oppressed ³ is widely considered one of the most influential texts in establishing critical pedagogy as a discipline.

Freire took a postcolonial approach to education, stating that the historically oppressed should receive an education that acknowledges their oppression and helps them to regain their identities and voices. He also believed that, much like language, education can never be value-free and should be viewed as a political act.

Today, many of Freire's postcolonial views can be applied to teaching English to speakers of other languages. For example, for students to receive an education free from certain ideologies, such as a native-English accent equating to intelligence, it's important to discuss the reasons why English is the current global language.

Fig 2. Critical pedagogy aims to remove social barriers

Critical Theory Example

Let's look at an example of how critical theory can be applied in an educational setting by examining the fundamental concepts of critical pedagogy. These principles are based on the works of Paulo Freire and Henry Giroux. Giroux is an American scholar and critic, who is a pioneer of critical pedagogy in the United States.

Problems With Critical Theory

Critical theory has been met with several criticisms since its creation in the 1930s. Let's look at some of the main issues that have been identified over the years:

• Although critical theory is supposed to be practical and normative, it doesn't necessarily offer any solutions for political action.

• Critical theory predominantly exists on an abstract and theoretical level.

• Explanations around the theory typically use overly complex and potentially confusing terminology.

• Critical theory has been accused of being naive to the realities of capitalism.

• Many of the key theorists are speaking from a place of privilege and may not have the 'authority' to talk on behalf of those they deem to be oppressed.

• Critical theorists have been accused of doing the same thing as those they are criticizing and for failing to see how trying to free people from a 'false consciousness' may be a form of dominance itself (Ellsworth, 1989).⁴

• The theory can be anti-individualist and essentialist in its views of groups of people, e.g., social classes.