Logical positivism is a fairly complex concept that can be applied to several significant academic disciplines, including science, sociology, psychology, and linguistics. The relationship we're concerned with as English Language students is that between logical positivism and linguistics.
Logical positivism can be a daunting topic to approach, so in this article, we'll break it down into smaller parts, including looking at a logical positivism definition, logical positivism in linguistics, the characteristics of positivism, and some examples. As you read through this article, your understanding of the topic should grow, and by the end of it, you'll be equipped with a solid foundation of logical positivism knowledge!
Positivism and Logical Positivism
Before we get into logical positivism itself, let's look at the wider topic of positivism first. This will give us a stronger foundation for our overall understanding of positivism and logical positivism.
Positivism is a philosophical theory that states that all knowledge is either mathematically and logically true based on sensory experience or is true by definition.
Let's look at the difference between 'mathematically and logically true' and 'true by definition.'
From a positivist perspective, if something is mathematically and logically true, it means it has been investigated, tested, and proven. Scientific discoveries are an example of things that are positive in this sense because they have been explored, trialed, and seen to be true. Something can also be considered positive if it can be experienced through sensory input.
If you touch a baking tray that's just come out of the oven without protecting your hands, you'll probably notice that it feels very hot on your skin. This "hotness" you experience through your sense of touch is positive because you have proven it through sensory experience.
'True by definition' refers to the language used to describe things and how they relate to the thing itself.
If you point at a chair and call it a chair, then this is true by definition. If, however, you referred to the chair as a flower, this would be untruthful and, therefore, not positive.
Fig 1. If something can be empirically proven to be true, it is more likely to fit into positivist ideals.
Basically, the "positive" component of "positivism" is all about the essence of truth.
Logical Positivism Explained
Although there are various definitions and types of positivism, the one we're going to focus on in this article is logical positivism, as this is the kind that relates most closely to linguistics.
Logical positivism is a form of positivism that believes the only philosophical constructs or issues that matter are the ones that can be proven or solved through logical analysis.
Logical analysis is a method of interpretation that uses statistical methods and reasoning to test an issue, ascertaining that each step of the analysis is true and accurate before moving on to the next. Because logical analysis follows a logical order, it is assumed that each step is true or positive because the step before it would have been as well.
Summary of Logical Positivism
The logical positivism movement was heavily influenced by the works of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), who wanted to revolutionize the way we use and understand language. He was involved in many disciplines, including mathematics, logic, ethics, and philosophy, and believed that the function of language is to allow people to visualize things.
Logical positivism was founded in Western philosophy by the members of the Vienna Circle, a group of prominent philosophers and scientists from different sociological, mathematical, and natural sciences backgrounds. These experts held regular meetings between 1924 and 1936 at the University of Vienna. These meetings were chaired by Moritz Schlick, the initial founder of the logical positivism movement and the Vienna Circle itself.
The aim of logical positivism, as proposed by the Vienna Circle, was to remove ambiguity from language by shifting philosophy to "scientific philosophy." The Vienna Circle believed they could move society closer to enlightenment by using logic to substantiate philosophical concepts. This idea links back to Wittgenstein's ambition of simplifying language to allow people to "see" things more clearly, as logical positivism favors concision, simplicity, and fact.
The Vienna Circle, and by extension, the logical positivist movement, were critical of abstract concepts such as metaphysics and religion and sought to unify different sciences (including mathematics, social sciences, and natural sciences) to enhance the clarity of information.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the abstract, fundamental concepts of reality. Examples of metaphysical interests include identity, the mind, the concept of being, and space and time.
Fig 2. Metaphysics is concerned with some complex and theoretical ideas that the positivism movement rejected.
Characteristics of Logical Positivism
Although logical positivism is an expansive topic that can be applied to different disciplines in different ways, the main characteristics of logial positivism when approaching a topic are:
Following on from the above point, logical positivism does not require emotive or evocative language, nor overly descriptive language. If the facts are down, that's the main thing.
Piggybacking on that point, logical positivism is all about the facts. Positivist arguments are not concerned with opinions, feelings, or ideas. Logical positivism centers around things that can be seen, touched, or proven in another way; anything else is discounted.
Logical Positivism in Linguistics
Quickly remind yourself of the definition of logical positivism we used earlier in the article. When looking at the significance of logical positivism in linguistics, we can refer back to this definition and apply it to language.
Logical positivism in linguistics relates to the belief that only sentences and utterances that convey verifiable, factual information are worth using. Sentences that talk about unverifiable concepts or ideas are meaningless.
This is clearly an extreme view of language that is not practical or accepted in most facets of society today.
Arguably, the closest we could get to true logical positivism in linguistics is the representation and reporting of factual information resulting from empirical (based on observation or experience rather than theory) investigation.
In highly scientific or mathematical investigations, true logic needs to be followed to draw a conclusion, and this logically drawn conclusion can then be conveyed in an equally logical, direct, and concise manner.
How, then, is positivism relevant in linguistics?
Logic and Linguistics
Although positivism itself might not be directly transferrable to many linguistic concepts, the logical side of logical positivism is inherent in natural language (i.e., logic plays an integral role in many aspects of natural language).
A natural language is any language that has developed naturally through use. Human languages such as English, Arabic, and Mandarin are natural languages. The opposite of a natural language is a synthetic language (such as programming or coding language used in computing).
Take English as an example. English is a "generative" or "productive" language, meaning that English speakers can build essentially infinite sentences by altering the combination and order of words (syntax), punctuation, and level of detail.
Even though English has a finite number of words, by rearranging them, adding to them, altering the punctuation, etc., we can take a finite number of words and create almost endless possibilities. How does this relate to logic?
As English speakers continue to develop their linguistic skills and understanding of linguistic concepts, they become better able to logically decide what makes sense in a sentence.
"Soup potato my is favorite." is not a meaningful utterance. However, most people have the logical reasoning to know that by rearranging the words (correcting the syntax), we can create a sentence that does make sense: "Potato soup is my favorite."
Similarly, if we use the same sentence but add in a random word or punctuation mark, the sentence once again becomes meaningless: "Potato! soup is fishbowl my favourite." Logic tells us this is inappropriate; therefore, we do not form sentences this way.
Logic and Semantics
Logic can also help us to understand what sentences mean. The branch of linguistics concerned with meaning is called semantics.
Although we might see a sentence and inherently know what it is saying, logic can help us to break it down into smaller chunks to help us understand the meaning fully.
"I spent all night locked out of my house, and it started raining, so now I have a cold and am very tired."
Logic and syntax tell us that this sentence can be broken down into constituent parts that all make sense independently:
- "I spent all night locked out of my house."
- "It started raining."
- "I have a cold."
- "I am very tired."
The use of the conjunction "so" tells us that this is a conditional structure. In other words, the speaker is now tired and sick because of the circumstances relayed in the sentence.
Semantics can help us not only understand the different components that make up a sentence but also to understand the relationship between context and meaning.
Many English words and phrases can have multiple meanings, which could become confusing in certain situations, were it not for the logic of context. Context allows us to interpret a word or sentence as relevant to a particular situation.
"Is this right?"
This sentence can mean two things:
- "Is this correct?"
- "Is this right (meaning the opposite side or direction to "left")?"
If someone asks you this question, you can use context to deduce the meaning they are trying to convey. Logic will tell you that if they are pointing to an answer to a maths problem, they mean, "Is this correct?". If, however, they are gesturing to one side of their body, you might conclude that they're trying to determine if that is the right or left side.
Example of Logical Positivism
Let's look at an example of logical positivism now.
Let's take the assertion that "being a vegan is moral, whereas eating animal products is amoral."
If a group of logical positivists were to debate the validity and truth of this statement, they would likely conclude that it is not a meaningful or positive sentence. This is because, according to logical positivism, for a sentence to make sense and be worth using, it needs to be provable.
Although someone might have the opinion or belief that being a vegan is more moral than eating animal products, this is not something that can be empirically proven or verified. If the sentence had more to do with the observable consequences of eating animal products (e.g., health implications and environmental impact of animal agriculture), then it would be closer to a logically positivist sentiment.
Fig 3. According to positivism, the opinion that veganism is better is meaningless.
Positivism and Interpretivism
By this point, you should have a decent idea of what positivism is and what it entails. To compare positivism and interpretivism then, we'll need to know what interpretivism is:
Interpretivism is a philosophical school of thought that opposes positivism and states that reality is subjective and comprises numerous perspectives.
In essence, interpretivism is the total opposite of positivism. Instead of valuing only information that is positive, interpretivism does what it says on the tin - leaves space for interpretation.
Whereas positivism implies that people use language according to socially imposed norms (or indeed, the standards set by the positivist movement), interpretivism acknowledges that individuals have subjective and unique experiences and cognition that will influence their language use.
Interpretivism could be said to be more descriptivist, especially where language is concerned, as opposed to positivism which could be considered more prescriptivist.
A descriptivist approach to language sees all varieties and features of language as purposeful, meaningful, and important. In contrast, a prescriptivist approach to language sees certain language varieties as superior and "correct" and others as inferior or "incorrect."
Positivism - Key takeaways
- Positivism is a philosophical theory that states that all knowledge is either empirically true or true by definition.
- The type of positivism most associated with linguistics is logical positivism, which can be applied to language to refer to sentences that convey verifiable, factual information.
- Logic plays a key role in being able to decipher meaning, creating a link between logical positivism and semantics.
- Logical positivism was founded by a group of scientists, mathematicians, philosophers, and sociologists called the Vienna Circle.
- Interpretivism opposes positivism by saying that reality is subjective.
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