Brezhnev Doctrine

In 1968, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev sought to tighten the Soviet Union's grip on the Eastern Bloc by establishing the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that any threat to a Warsaw Pact country was a threat to European socialism as a whole. It declared that the Soviet Union would intervene – in a military capacity, if necessary – to protect socialism in Eastern Europe.

Brezhnev Doctrine Summary

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to justify the Soviet Union's right to intervene in the affairs of other socialist countries, in order to safeguard the common interests of socialist countries and counter anti-socialist forces. Named after him, this doctrine shaped the Soviet Union's foreign policy during much of the Cold War.

Established by Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev in 1968, the Brezhnev Doctrine declared that any threat to a European communist state was a threat to the entire Eastern Bloc. This foreign policy also justified Soviet military intervention if a communist state was threatened.

Brezhnev Doctrine 1968

Firstly, let's look at the origins of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The 1950s and 1960s were tumultuous times for the Soviet Union. The death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech, and the process of de-Stalinization damaged the prestige of the Soviet Union and propagated dissent among some Eastern Bloc countries. Such dissent was exemplified in 1956 with revolutions in Poland and Hungary.

Poznań Protests 1956

On 28 June 1956, the workers of the Joseph Stalin Metal Works in Poznań, Poland launched a protest against the communist Polish People's Republic. The workers were angry about their low wages, poor safety conditions, and heightened production quotas, demanding better working conditions.

Fig. 2 - Poznań Protests 1956

The protest quickly evolved from a small-scale worker's protest to a full-scale anti-communist revolt. Within a matter of hours, 100,000 supporters had gathered in Poznań's city centre. The Polish government deployed 10,000 soldiers and 400 tanks, brutally quashing the demonstration and killing approximately 100 protestors.

Hungarian Revolution 1956

The Hungarian Revolution took place between 23 October 1956 and 11 November 1956. The revolt was a nationwide response to the domestic policies enforced by the Soviet Union upon Hungary.

In October 1956, thousands of Hungarians took to the streets, demanding independence from Moscow. The Soviet Union responded by appointing popular communist Imre Nagy as Hungary's new Premier. Peace was restored temporarily until Nagy declared that Hungary was to leave the Warsaw Pact.

Upon hearing this, the Soviets marched into Budapest on 4 November. The Red Army brutally quashed the revolution, killing 2,500 Hungarian revolutionaries.

The events in Poland and Hungary saw Brezhnev diverge from Khrushchev's 'different paths to socialism'¹ approach, deciding that a unified socialist vision was integral to the survival of the Eastern Bloc. It was not until the Prague Spring, however, that Brezhnev decided to take direct action.

The Prague Spring 1968

Let's examine the Prague Spring – the event that saw the creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine.

Background of the Prague Spring

In 1968, Czechoslovakia's hard-line communist leader, Antonin Novotny, was replaced by Alexander Dubcek. Dubcek sought to reform Czechoslovakian politics, delivering 'Socialism with a Human Face’.

Such liberalising reforms would:

• Increase individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of movement.

• Remove state control of the economy.

• Allow non-communist parties to put forward candidates for election.

Gravely concerned that Czechoslovakia was slipping away, Brezhnev decided to take direct action.

The Establishment of the Brezhnev Doctrine

In the midst of the Prague Spring, Brezhnev launched the Brezhnev Doctrine. The policy was formed in three main stages:

1. On 3 August 1968, at a Warsaw Pact conference, Brezhnev declared that each socialist country was responsible for defending socialism.
2. In September 1968, the Brezhnev Doctrine was published in the Soviet Union newspaper Pravda. Entitled 'Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries', the document stated that a country's 'decisions shouldn't damage either socialism in their country or the fundamental interests of other socialist countries'.²
3. In November 1968, the Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty outlined the possibility of military interventionism against capitalist threats.

Brezhnev Doctrine Consequences

The Brezhnev Doctrine significantly affected Eastern Bloc countries and the Cold War landscape. Here are some of the main consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine:

• The Brezhnev Doctrine demonstrated that the Soviet Union was prepared to go to war to defend communism. This understandably heightened Cold War tensions with the West.

• The establishment of the Brezhnev Doctrine saw the end of Khrushchev’s 'separate paths to socialism' – a policy that declared that every socialist country could determine its own path.

• By embarking on a policy of interventionism, the Brezhnev Doctrine prompted an increase in proxy wars.

• The Brezhnev Doctrine limited the scope of reform in Eastern Bloc countries.

• By making each Eastern Bloc nation responsible for maintaining European communism, Brezhnev strengthened the ideological unity of the USSR.

Besides these general points, the Brezhnev Doctrine also had direct impacts in individual countries. Let's look further than the effects on Afghanistan in 1979.

Fig. 3 - Soviet tanks roll into Czechoslovakia

Brezhnev Doctrine and Afghanistan

The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, taking advantage of the ambiguity of the Brezhnev Doctrine to justify military intervention. After all, Afghanistan was not a member of the Warsaw Pact nor situated in Europe, but at the time had a communist party in turmoil.

Afghanistan during the 1970s

Throughout the 1970s, Afghanistan went through a series of political changes:

• In July 1973, Mohammed Zahir Shah – King of Afghanistan – was ousted by his cousin, Mohammed Daoud Khan. After taking power, Khan established a Republic and named himself President.

• On 27 April 1978, Khan – alongside 18 members of his family – was assassinated by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA).

• On 8 October 1979, Nur Muhammad Taraki – the leader of the PDPA – was assassinated by fellow PDPA member Hafizullah Amin during an internal party coup.

With Afghanistan in chaos, Brezhnev had to act; he believed that if he didn't, members of the Warsaw Pact might start to question his commitment to defending communist states.

Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan

Despite taking Kabul in a matter of days, the Soviet military faced fierce resistance in the countryside, with Islamic fighters known as mujahidin employing guerrilla warfare techniques.

After nine years of fighting and no end in sight, new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev gave the order to withdraw from Afghanistan.

End of Brezhnev Doctrine

Between 1980 and 1981, the Polish Crisis rocked the Eastern Bloc. Waves of strikes, opposition to Poland's communist government, and the emergence of the Solidarity Trade Union saw the control of the Soviet Union in Poland decrease. Despite socialism in Poland being severely under threat, Moscow did not intervene; this marked the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine era.

On 10 November 1982, Leonid Brezhnev died and was replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Gorbachev further disassociated himself from the Brezhnev Doctrine, withdrawing from Afghanistan and refusing to intervene as the USSR itself began to collapse. He proclaimed the Sinatra Doctrine, which humorously was named after Frank Sinatra's song 'My Way,' granting the nations of the Warsaw Pact the freedom to pursue their own paths politically and economically, officially underlining the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine and Russia's refusal to intervene in Eastern European states.