Brezhnev Doctrine

In 1968, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev sought to tighten the Soviet Union's grip on the Eastern Bloc by establishing the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that any threat to a Warsaw Pact country was a threat to European socialism as a whole. It declared that the Soviet Union would intervene – in a military capacity, if necessary – to protect socialism in Eastern Europe.

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      Warsaw Pact

      Eastern Europe's equivalent to NATO. It was a defence treaty between the Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.

      Brezhnev Doctrine Summary

      The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to justify the Soviet Union's right to intervene in the affairs of other socialist countries, in order to safeguard the common interests of socialist countries and counter anti-socialist forces. Named after him, this doctrine shaped the Soviet Union's foreign policy during much of the Cold War.

      Established by Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev in 1968, the Brezhnev Doctrine declared that any threat to a European communist state was a threat to the entire Eastern Bloc. This foreign policy also justified Soviet military intervention if a communist state was threatened.

      Brezhnev Doctrine Post-war EuropeFig. 1 - Post-war Europe

      Brezhnev Doctrine 1968

      Firstly, let's look at the origins of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The 1950s and 1960s were tumultuous times for the Soviet Union. The death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech, and the process of de-Stalinization damaged the prestige of the Soviet Union and propagated dissent among some Eastern Bloc countries. Such dissent was exemplified in 1956 with revolutions in Poland and Hungary.

      De-Stalinization

      After denouncing the crimes of Stalin during his Secret Speech to the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev sought to undo Stalinist policies and remove his cult of personality. This began the process of De-Stalinization throughout the USSR and its satellite states.

      Poznań Protests 1956

      On 28 June 1956, the workers of the Joseph Stalin Metal Works in Poznań, Poland launched a protest against the communist Polish People's Republic. The workers were angry about their low wages, poor safety conditions, and heightened production quotas, demanding better working conditions.

      Brezhnev Doctrine Poznan Protests StudySmarterFig. 2 - Poznań Protests 1956

      The protest quickly evolved from a small-scale worker's protest to a full-scale anti-communist revolt. Within a matter of hours, 100,000 supporters had gathered in Poznań's city centre. The Polish government deployed 10,000 soldiers and 400 tanks, brutally quashing the demonstration and killing approximately 100 protestors.

      Hungarian Revolution 1956

      The Hungarian Revolution took place between 23 October 1956 and 11 November 1956. The revolt was a nationwide response to the domestic policies enforced by the Soviet Union upon Hungary.

      In October 1956, thousands of Hungarians took to the streets, demanding independence from Moscow. The Soviet Union responded by appointing popular communist Imre Nagy as Hungary's new Premier. Peace was restored temporarily until Nagy declared that Hungary was to leave the Warsaw Pact.

      Upon hearing this, the Soviets marched into Budapest on 4 November. The Red Army brutally quashed the revolution, killing 2,500 Hungarian revolutionaries.

      The events in Poland and Hungary saw Brezhnev diverge from Khrushchev's 'different paths to socialism'1 approach, deciding that a unified socialist vision was integral to the survival of the Eastern Bloc. It was not until the Prague Spring, however, that Brezhnev decided to take direct action.

      The Prague Spring 1968

      Let's examine the Prague Spring – the event that saw the creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine.

      Background of the Prague Spring

      In 1968, Czechoslovakia's hard-line communist leader, Antonin Novotny, was replaced by Alexander Dubcek. Dubcek sought to reform Czechoslovakian politics, delivering 'Socialism with a Human Face’.

      Such liberalising reforms would:

      • Increase individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of movement.
      • Remove state control of the economy.
      • Allow non-communist parties to put forward candidates for election.

      Gravely concerned that Czechoslovakia was slipping away, Brezhnev decided to take direct action.

      The Establishment of the Brezhnev Doctrine

      In the midst of the Prague Spring, Brezhnev launched the Brezhnev Doctrine. The policy was formed in three main stages:

      1. On 3 August 1968, at a Warsaw Pact conference, Brezhnev declared that each socialist country was responsible for defending socialism.
      2. In September 1968, the Brezhnev Doctrine was published in the Soviet Union newspaper Pravda. Entitled 'Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries', the document stated that a country's 'decisions shouldn't damage either socialism in their country or the fundamental interests of other socialist countries'.2
      3. In November 1968, the Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty outlined the possibility of military interventionism against capitalist threats.

      The immediate consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine came with the USSR's actions in Czechoslovakia. On 20 August 1968, half a million Eastern Bloc troops marched into the country, Alexander Dubcek was arrested, and pro-Soviet Gustáv Husák replaced him. This set a precedent for other USSR satellite states should they attempt to diverge from Soviet communism.

      Brezhnev Doctrine Consequences

      The Brezhnev Doctrine significantly affected Eastern Bloc countries and the Cold War landscape. Here are some of the main consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine:

      • The Brezhnev Doctrine demonstrated that the Soviet Union was prepared to go to war to defend communism. This understandably heightened Cold War tensions with the West.
      • The establishment of the Brezhnev Doctrine saw the end of Khrushchev’s 'separate paths to socialism' – a policy that declared that every socialist country could determine its own path.
      • By embarking on a policy of interventionism, the Brezhnev Doctrine prompted an increase in proxy wars.
      • The Brezhnev Doctrine limited the scope of reform in Eastern Bloc countries.
      • By making each Eastern Bloc nation responsible for maintaining European communism, Brezhnev strengthened the ideological unity of the USSR.

      Besides these general points, the Brezhnev Doctrine also had direct impacts in individual countries. Let's look further than the effects on Afghanistan in 1979.

      Brezhnev Doctrine Warsaw Pact invade Czechoslovakia StudySmarterFig. 3 - Soviet tanks roll into Czechoslovakia

      Brezhnev Doctrine and Afghanistan

      The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, taking advantage of the ambiguity of the Brezhnev Doctrine to justify military intervention. After all, Afghanistan was not a member of the Warsaw Pact nor situated in Europe, but at the time had a communist party in turmoil.

      Afghanistan during the 1970s

      Throughout the 1970s, Afghanistan went through a series of political changes:

      • In July 1973, Mohammed Zahir Shah – King of Afghanistan – was ousted by his cousin, Mohammed Daoud Khan. After taking power, Khan established a Republic and named himself President.
      • On 27 April 1978, Khan – alongside 18 members of his family – was assassinated by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA).
      • On 8 October 1979, Nur Muhammad Taraki – the leader of the PDPA – was assassinated by fellow PDPA member Hafizullah Amin during an internal party coup.

      With Afghanistan in chaos, Brezhnev had to act; he believed that if he didn't, members of the Warsaw Pact might start to question his commitment to defending communist states.

      Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan

      Despite taking Kabul in a matter of days, the Soviet military faced fierce resistance in the countryside, with Islamic fighters known as mujahidin employing guerrilla warfare techniques.

      Mujahidin

      An armed Afghan resistance force that was backed by the USA. They believed the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan was an attack on their culture and religion. The mujahidin utilised guerrilla warfare tactics such as sabotage, ambushes, and raids.

      After nine years of fighting and no end in sight, new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev gave the order to withdraw from Afghanistan.

      When Gorbachev came to power, he reversed the Brezhnev Doctrine and allowed Warsaw Pact nations to determine their own affairs; he humorously called this policy the 'Sinatra Doctrine', after Frank Sinatra's song "My Way"!

      End of Brezhnev Doctrine

      Between 1980 and 1981, the Polish Crisis rocked the Eastern Bloc. Waves of strikes, opposition to Poland's communist government, and the emergence of the Solidarity Trade Union saw the control of the Soviet Union in Poland decrease. Despite socialism in Poland being severely under threat, Moscow did not intervene; this marked the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine era.

      Solidarity Trade Union

      The Solidarity Trade Union originated in August 1980, when workers of the Gdańsk Shipyard went on strike over poor working conditions and the economic situation in Poland. Just a year later, the union had attracted 10 million members and evolved to represent anti-communism in Poland.

      With Solidarity growing in strength, the Communist government in Poland tried to defeat the union by imposing martial law in 1981. After eight years of repression, the Polish government was forced to negotiate with the now-powerful movement. These negotiations – known as the Roundtable Talks – saw the establishment of semi-free elections in 1989 and the election of the Solidarity majority coalition.

      On 10 November 1982, Leonid Brezhnev died and was replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Gorbachev further disassociated himself from the Brezhnev Doctrine, withdrawing from Afghanistan and refusing to intervene as the USSR itself began to collapse. He proclaimed the Sinatra Doctrine, which humorously was named after Frank Sinatra's song 'My Way,' granting the nations of the Warsaw Pact the freedom to pursue their own paths politically and economically, officially underlining the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine and Russia's refusal to intervene in Eastern European states.

      Brezhnev Doctrine – Key takeaways

      • The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to justify the Soviet Union's right to intervene in the affairs of other socialist countries, in order to safeguard the common interests of socialist countries and counter anti-socialist forces.
      • Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev established the Brezhnev Doctrine in 1968.
      • The foreign policy declared that any threat to a European socialist country was a threat to socialism as a whole.
      • The Brezhnev Doctrine was used to justify Soviet military intervention in Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan.
      • The policy ended during the Polish Crisis 1980-1 when Moscow didn't intervene despite the decline of socialism in Poland.

      References

      1. Nikita Khrushchev, 'Speech at the Soviet Twentieth Party Congress', 25 February 1956
      2. Sergei Kovalev, 'The International Obligations of Socialist Countries', 25 September 1968
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      Frequently Asked Questions about Brezhnev Doctrine

      What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

      Established in 1968 by Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, the Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy that stated that any threat to a Warsaw Pact country was a threat to European socialism as a whole. 

      What did the Brezhnev Doctrine prevent?

      The Brezhnev sought to prevent the collapse of the Eastern Bloc.

      What did the Brezhnev Doctrine declare?

      The Brezhnev Doctrine declared that any threat to a socialist state was a threat to socialism as a whole.

      How did the Brezhnev Doctrine affect eastern bloc countries?

      The Brezhnev Doctrine prevented liberalising reforms among the countries of the Eastern Bloc.

      When did the Brezhnev Doctrine end?

      The Brezhnev Doctrine ended during the Polish Crisis 1980-1981, when the Soviet Union refused to intervene despite communism in Poland being under threat. 

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