On 4 April 1949, capitalist countries from the Northern hemisphere came together to form a military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Its main objective was to encourage the countries to work together and to provide collective security to the US, Canada, and the Western European countries against the communist Soviet threat.
Although this alliance has transformed throughout the years, it exists to this very day and remains one of the most influential products of the Cold War on twentieth and twenty-first-century international relations.
Alliance
An association to help further the common interests of its members.
Treaty
An agreement or arrangement negotiated and signed by two or more authorities (i.e. states, countries, leaders).
The formation of NATO summary
After the Second World War, Europe was devastated. Many countries had very weak economies and had dramatically reduced armies. This left them both militarily and ideologically vulnerable.
The Soviet Union emerged from the war with a far bigger breadth of power, having installed armies across the states of Central and Eastern Europe. Stalin’s Iron Curtain had descended across Europe as the USSR built up a buffer zone by installing communist governments in Eastern European countries. This buffer zone safeguarded the USSR from any attacks from the West.
The Western allies feared that the Soviets might want to expand this buffer zone by capturing more countries in Europe through the appeal of communism or military domination.
Iron curtain
A metaphor used by Winston Churchill to describe the area isolated by the Soviet Union.
Threat | Explanation | Countermeasure |
Appeal of Communism | Countries with failing economies and poor living conditions were more vulnerable to the ideological appeal of communism and may turn to it. | How: The Marshall Plan |
Domination | Smaller weaker countries with reduced militaries and weapons were more vulnerable to Soviet invasion and could be dominated. | How: |
Monetary aid from the Marshall Plan was helping to rebuild and develop strong economic ties between countries. However, many felt that economic prosperity was not enough to stave off the Soviet threat and that the countries needed greater military cooperation to ensure that some of the smaller and more vulnerable countries in Western Europe were protected- this led to the formation of NATO.
Reasons for the formation of NATO
We now know the main reason for the formation of NATO- protection from Soviet aggressive expansionism. This was compatible with the US Policy of Containment stressed by the Truman Doctrine.
Containment
A policy of containing the Soviet threat by not allowing the USSR to gain power over any more countries.
Let's look more in detail at events leading up to NATO's formation in 1949.
The coup d’état in Czechoslovakia
In February 1948, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took complete undisputed control of the government of Czechoslovakia. As Czechoslovakia was the last Eastern European democracy, it shocked the Western world and consolidated the USSR’s power.
Fearing the Soviet’s increasing stronghold, it spurred Western European countries to start discussing collective defence to protect other countries.
Coup d’état
A violent overthrow or alteration of an existing government by a small group.
Pro-communist demonstrations in the country before the coup, Wikimedia Commons.
The Berlin Blockade
The Berlin Blockade of 1948 demonstrated that the Western and Eastern zones could not peacefully co-exist and that the USSR was a volatile and unpredictable force in the Cold War. It showed what the Soviet Union was capable of and stressed the need for a defensive organisation in case they tried similar stunts in other European countries.
Increased US presence in Europe
The Cold War tensions and the acceleration of the nuclear arms race made it more important for the US to have influence and presence in Europe. In the event of a Soviet attack on any of the capitalist European states, the US could intervene quickly and effectively if they had military bases in Europe. Establishing NATO enabled them to place weapons and potentially nuclear missile sites in their member states that were closer to the USSR.
China and North Korea
The USA was becoming increasingly worried about the spread of communism following China’s Communist Revolution in 1949. The world was looking increasingly ‘red’, and this power could threaten the Western world. This fear was further compounded by North Korea becoming a fully-fledged communist state in 1949 and the subsequent Korean War. This encouraged the NATO allies to create a military structure with headquarters in Paris.
The formation of NATO
In 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg had created the Brussels Treaty, which assured mutual defence. However, these states recognised that they would need to create a stronger and larger alliance to counter the threat of the Soviets.
Britain, Canada, and the US engaged in talks in March 1948 about a collective defence organisation to enhance security and promote democratic values. France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Norway joined these talks in 1949. From there, the North Atlantic Treaty was formed.
Member States
1949: The original members were the USA, Canada, Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Italy, and Portugal.
1952: Greece and Turkey joined.
1955: West Germany joined.
1982: Spain joined.
The purpose of NATO
NATO created an alliance of countries that would work cooperatively to build up their militaries and support each other in the event of an attack. The articles within the treaty, signed by its members, all work to support these purposes:
Provide collective defence to members
Prevent Soviet expansionism
Encourage European cooperation
Maintain a US presence in Europe
Prevent a revival of nationalist militarism
Article 5
The treaty consists of 14 articles, outlining how countries will support each other militarily. Article 5, however, is arguably the most important of the NATO alliance as it enshrines collective defence. It states that
an armed attack against one Ally is considered an attack against all Allies.
This means that if one NATO member is attacked then all NATO nations will respond.
Did you know?
Article 5 has actually only been invoked once so far since the creation of NATO in 1949. Do you know which major event of the twenty-first century provoked this? (Answer below).
Formation of NATO and the Cold War
The formation of NATO further deepened the split between capitalist and communist powers. As NATO was a defensive rather than offensive strategy, however, there was no real threat to the USSR, hence it did not immediately create its own military alliance.
In 1954, the Soviet Union actually suggested it should join NATO to help preserve peace in Europe. However, its offer was rejected as the other members felt there was an ulterior motive to weaken the treaty.
It was West Germany’s 1955 admission into NATO that pushed the USSR into forming their own version, the Warsaw Pact; West Germany was allowed to join NATO and permitted an army and air force. This worried the USSR, who felt that it may lead to a renewal of Germany’s strength and power. The Second World War had only ended ten years earlier and its brutality was fresh in the minds of many who had fought, lost people, or suffered its long-term consequences.
In response, the USSR created its own military alliance- the Warsaw Pact. West Germany joining NATO was a turning point in the Cold War; with the formation of the Warsaw Pact including East Germany, the Iron Curtain was well and truly established.
The formation of the Warsaw Pact
On 14 May 1955, the communist states of Eastern Europe came together to form a military alliance with similar security aims to NATO. Relations among those who signed the treaty were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. Member states were also obligated to intervene if any of the Warsaw Pact countries were threatened.
Member States
The original members were the USSR, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania.
Yugoslavia, although a communist state, notably refused to join the Warsaw Pact. Tito, Yugoslavia's leader, had always wanted independence from Stalin.
Map of the military alliances in Europe during the Cold War. Created with mapchart.net - StudySmarter.
Consequences of the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact
There was never any direct confrontation between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, but the threat of nuclear war was enough to deter them from attacking each other.
‘Massive retaliation’
NATO adopted the doctrine of ‘Massive Retaliation’ if the Soviet Union attacked. This meant that they would respond with nuclear weapons for even the smallest of transgressions. This prevented either side from taking any risks as the consequences would be extreme.
The NATO alliance members could, as a result, focus on economic growth rather than building large armies. Members could also focus on scientific and political cooperation (such as the Space Race) rather than solely military.
The Warsaw Pact and the invasion of Czechoslovakia
When Czechoslovakia threatened the stability of the Eastern bloc in 1968 by relaxing some restrictions in what was known as the Prague Spring, the USSR invaded the country using troops from the Warsaw Pact. Every member of the Warsaw Pact (excluding the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People’s Republic of Albania) participated, quickly and effectively crushing the Prague Spring.
This single demonstration of the power of the Warsaw Pact tightened the USSR’s control of its states. They could attribute the invasion to the Warsaw Pact countries rather than just the USSR and it deterred any other Eastern bloc countries from rebelling against the USSR for years.
Did you know? (Answer)
Article 5 has so far only ever been invoked in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks to fight terrorism.
The formation of NATO - Key takeaways
- NATO was formed in 1949 by the US, Canada, and West European countries.
- Its main purposes were to create collective security against the Soviet threat, maintain a US presence in Europe, and encourage collaboration between European states.
- Article 5 is the most important part of the treaty, as it stipulates that ‘an armed attack against one Ally is considered an attack against all Allies.’
- West Germany’s accession to NATO in 1955 compelled the Soviet Union to create their own military alliance, the Warsaw Pact.
- NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly confronted each other. Instead, they contributed to the long cold standoff during the Cold War.
- The Warsaw Pact was used to invade Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring in 1968, strengthening the USSR’s control over its states.
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