Jerusalem is about as holy as a city can be, so naturally, every religion wanted a slice of it. What happened when the Islamic state decided to conquer the Christian Byzantines? Read on to find out.
Siege of Jerusalem Meaning
As a holy city for the three major religions of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, Jerusalem has come under siege several times during its chequered history. A tug of war to last millennia, there are multiple iterations of the Siege of Jerusalem. In the year 70 CE, the Romans destroyed and ransacked the city that was then under Jewish rule. Their uncompromising approach virtually wiped all Jews from Jerusalem, leaving it dominated by Romans and then Byzantine Christians. In 1099, a Christian Crusade took back the centuries-long Muslim rule from the Fatimid Caliphate, but we will focus on the Siege of Jerusalem in between these. We will examine the siege enacted by the Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun Caliphate) who brought an end to the Byzantine rule in 637.
Siege of Jerusalem Map
Jerusalem is home to the Temple Mount, where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven, giving it religious importance to Muslims. Coupled with this, the location was key in the desire of Caliph Umar Ibn Khattab to capture it. Jerusalem was an important Byzantine stronghold on the Levant, an area on the east of the Mediterranean Sea of importance to the Rashidun Caliphate. Should they capture this strip of land, it would provide a gateway to Eastern Europe through Anatolia, Mesopotamia (western Asia, above the Arabian Peninsula) and North Africa (also known as the Maghreb).
The Siege of Jerusalem History
When the Prophet Muhammad died in 632, the influence of the Muslims mainly centred around Medina and Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula. However, after a few short years, the first Caliph Abu Bakr spread his influence across the Peninsula, quashing opposition. It was now time to broaden their horizons, but Abu Bakr suddenly died in 634. Umar Ibn Khattab was now the new caliph, charged with spreading the influence of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Who was Umar Ibn Khattab?
Umar Ibn Khattab differed from his predecessor, the wise-owl Abu Bakr. He had the reputation of a warrior, who struck fear into people with his sheer presence and the whip that he was armed with. By the end of Abu Bakr's reign in 634, the Muslims had already engaged with the Byzantine Empire and were victorious at the Battle of Ajnadgyn in modern-day Israel.
Let's now examine the battles during Umar's caliphate that led to the siege of the holy city of Jerusalem.
| Date | Event |
| August - September 634 | The Siege of Damascus lasted around a month. It was an important victory that Khalid helped to engineer strategically. With the fall of Damascus, the Rashidun Caliphate gained control and influence over parts of Syria. |
| December 634 - March 635 | During the Battle of Emesa (modern-day Homs) in Syria, the forces of Umar Ibn Khattab once more defeated the Byzantine Empire and captured the city. This left the critical city of Aleppo in the north of Syria under serious threat and struck fear into the heart of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. |
| August 636 | With Heraclius expecting further northern advances, Khalid drew back to the Yarmouk river, which was near the border with the Arabian Peninsula. This confused and exhausted the Byzantines, who needed to redistribute their forces and also provided the Muslim army with a direct supply line for resources. After the bloody five-day Battle of Yarmouk, and despite being heavily outnumbered, there was a decisive victory for the Rashidun Caliphate. A vital victory, this allowed troops to be redistributed to Iraq against the Sassanids. |
The Yarmouk victory also gave Umar's forces a free run at capturing Jerusalem.
Siege of Jerusalem 637
The Siege of Jerusalem began in late 636 and stretched into 637, though some sources believe it went on until 638. Sophronius, the patriarch of the city, was the reason that it lasted so long. He was adamant that he would only discuss terms of surrender with Umar. However, as Umar was in Medina, Khalid ibn al-Walid attempted to dupe the patriarch into believing he was the caliph, but was recognised.
Did you know? Khalid ibn al-Walid was a top war commander and largely responsible for the Muslim military victories at the time. He is remembered to this day as one of Islam's greatest generals.
The fury of the patriarch at this deception forced Umar to make the arduous journey. The story of his eventual arrival is a fascinating story and feeds into the cultivation of the caliph's legend.
Patriarch
Name given to the head bishop of the Eastern Orthodox Church. During this period, there was a patriarch for five prominent Christian cities, including Jerusalem.
When Umar arrived at the gates of the city, he left a resplendent Sophronius bewildered. Where was the fabled caliph, the great warrior? Encrusted in gold and fanned by two men, the patriarch peered across the desert, expecting a wondrous and fearsome sight, only to be greeted by a servant leading a camel. The servant, dressed in the clothes of a poor man, turned out to be Umar.
Fig. 2 - Caliph Umar enters Jerusalem
Rather than looting the city, Umar oversaw a peaceful transition, saying that all Byzantine politicians could leave with all that they could carry. He walked through the city with Sophronius, who assumed that Umar would like to use the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to say a prayer. However, Umar declined, allowing the Christians to keep their church for their religion.
When he came to the Temple Mount, he saw that it had become a landfill site to punish the Jews. The Byzantine forces had killed almost all the city's Jews in the wars with the Persian Sassanids and dumped rubbish on their holy site. Umar calmly began clearing the rubbish away and spoke to a Jewish Muslim convert, asking him to find 80 Jewish families to live in and diversify the city. Far from his warrior reputation, this casts Umar as a merciful leader, but we run into the problem that history is written by the victors. Indeed, Montefiore argues:
Contrary to the Umar legend, it seems that the early Muslims first prayed in or beside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre before arrangements could be made on the Temple Mount."
- Simon Sebag Montefiore, 'Jerusalem: The Biography', 20201
The Siege of Jerusalem Effects
Even with his entrance to the city, it was clear that Umar Ibn Khattab would approach the rule of Jerusalem differently from the Byzantine patriarchs. The city would come to be owned by the Muslims for almost 500 years until 1099. Revolution occurred in two areas in particular.
New Religious Sites
We know that Umar had grand plans for the Temple Mount, but his reign ended in 644 before anything could be built. With grand expansions and campaigns following the Siege of Jerusalem, it was not until the Ummayad Caliphate and Caliph Abd al-Malik in around 692 that a mosque was erected on the holy site. After it was, the Muslim stamp on the city was clear. A cultural identity began to blossom across the caliphate, with much of the architecture taking inspiration from the Dome of the Rock.
Abd al-Malik's astonishing vision seized the skyline of Jerusalem for Islam by building on the mountain, disdained by the Byzantines, which ruled the city. Physically the Dome of the Rock dominated Jerusalem and overshadowed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre - and that was Abd al-Malik's purpose.
- Simon Sebag Montefiore, 'Jerusalem: The Biography', 2192
Even the position and the golden dome of the mosque were significant, showing a departure from Umar's humility once the rule was established.
Fig. 3 - The Dome of the Rock dominates the Jerusalem skyline
New Methods of Governance
Just as the new temple would come to demonstrate the shift in dominance from the Byzantines to the Muslims, their unique methods of governance were something not seen before. Umar Ibn Khattab promoted a culture of tolerance. He allowed Christians and Jews to continue practising their religions, even allowing Jews to worship at Temple Mount alongside Muslims. It is important to remember that this was only on the condition that they paid jizyah, a compulsory non-Muslim tax. This followed the blueprint of other conquered Byzantine territories. Non-believers still got a better deal than previously, where taxes were higher and there was no free trade.
As we have already mentioned, the dual use of the Temple Mount and the new methods of governance contrasted the bloody history of Jerusalem. The methods of Umar and his successors proved more practical and long-lasting. The key point was that, ultimately, members of other faiths were able to enjoy some stability and thrive under Muslim governance.
Siege of Jerusalem - Key takeaways
- Jerusalem is a unique city in that it has religious significance for Christians, Muslims and Jews.
- It proved high on the list of priorities for the second Caliph, Umar Ibn Khattab because of its role in the life of the Prophet Muhammad and also its strategic position in the Levant.
- A series of military victories, including the Battle of Yarmouk (636) paved the way for the Siege of Jerusalem.
- After Sophronius' refusal to discuss surrender with Khalid, Umar made the trip to Jerusalem, where he ensured a peaceful transition of power.
- Muslim rule over Jerusalem came to be defined by their architecture, notably the Dome of the Rock, and their tolerance towards other faiths borne out of practicality.
References
- Simon Sebag Montefiore, 'Jerusalem: The Biography', (2020), pp 212.
- Ibid pp. 219
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