Who was Caliph Uthman ibn Affan and why was he assassinated? The third caliph to rule the Islamic community after the Prophet Muhammad's death, Islamic and Western historians have disagreed about how to view Caliph Uthman for centuries. Some have perceived him as a pious and moral exemplar - but if that was the case, why was he killed? Others have perceived him as a weak and corrupt ruler - but does that do justice to his military, religious and financial successes? Find out more about this controversial caliph by reading on.
Pious
Showing sincere devotion to one's religion and deity
Fig. 1 - Coins minted by Caliph Uthman based on a Persian design 1
Coins were an important way of showing your power in the ancient and medieval world.
Uthman ibn Affan Facts
Here is a list of ten key facts to introduce you to who Caliph Uthman was and how he fits into the history of Islam.
- Caliph Uthman was the third caliph to rule the Islamic community after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Before his rule came Caliph Abu Bakr and Caliph Umar, and after him came Caliph Ali.
- Caliph Uthman ruled for a total of twelve years between 644 and 656. This made him the longest reigning caliph out of the Rashidun Caliphs.
- Caliph Uthman was one of the first converts to Islam in Mecca during the early preaching years of the Prophet Muhammad.
- Caliph Uthman was married to the Prophet Muhammad's daughter Ruqayyah. This made him the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad.
- Caliph Uthman was part of the Banu Umayya clan of the Quraysh tribe. This tribe was originally hostile to the Prophet Muhammad. His accession to the caliphate showed the start of the rise of the Umayyads in Islam.
- Caliph Uthman ordered the official compilation of the Qur'an.
- Caliph Uthman liked appointing his relatives and close friends to positions of governance. This made him extremely unpopular.
- The Rashidun Caliphate reached its peak size under Caliph Uthman. Most of Uthman's military conquests were successful, including a significant naval battle against the Byzantine Empire.
- Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656.
- The death of Caliph Uthman started a major conflict in Islam about who had the right to become caliph. This led to the First Fitna.
First Fitna
The first civil war in Islam
The conflict began during the reign of Caliph Ali, and ended when Muawiya I became Caliph in 661.
What was the Rashidun Caliphate?
The Rashidun Caliphate was the first political and religious state of Islam following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The four caliphs who ruled during this period were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali. They were all prominent companions or relatives of the Prophet Muhammad.
These four caliphs retrospectively earned the name 'Rashidun' (meaning 'rightly guided' in Arabic) because they were known for their piety and closeness to the Prophet. Therefore, the reigns of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali are seen to be a golden period within Islam.
Uthman ibn Affan Biography
Let's take a look at the life of Uthman ibn Affan, from his birth in Mecca to his assassination as caliph.
Early Life
Uthman was born into the Banu Umayya clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca in around 576 C.E. This made him a close contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad, who was born around 570 C.E.
Uthman's father died at a young age, leaving Uthman a large inheritance. He became one of the wealthiest merchants in Mecca.
Conversion to Islam
Uthman originally believed in many local deities, as did the rest of the polytheistic Quraysh tribe. However, one day, his friend Abu Bakr, who would later become the first Rashidun Caliph, introduced Uthman to Islam.
Polytheistic
Believing in many different deities
When Uthman decided to convert to Islam, Abu Bakr took him to see the Prophet Muhammad to officially proclaim his new faith. This made Uthman one of the very first converts to Islam. Not long after, Uthman married the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, Ruqayyah.
However, Uthman's conversion angered his clan, the Banu Umayya. In 615, he decided to migrate to Ethiopia with his wife and several other Muslims because of the hostility they encountered in Mecca as followers of the Prophet Muhammad. However, they later made the decision to return to Mecca despite the antagonism of the Quraysh tribe.
Uthman in Medina
In 622, Uthman migrated to Medina along with the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr and the other Muslims who were being persecuted in Mecca for their faith. He never rose to any prominence during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad.
Persecute
To subject someone to constant hostility because of their identity or beliefs
Reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar
Uthman and Abu Bakr were very close friends. During the reign of Abu Bakr, Uthman began to hold more important positions, for example, acting as Abu Bakr's advisor in Medina during the Ridda Wars. Uthman was even given the important role of dictating Abu Bakr's will, and was present while Abu Bakr was on his deathbed.
Ridda Wars
Wars fought between 632 and 633 by Abu Bakr to quell rebellious tribes who wanted to abandon Islam after the Prophet Muhammad died
Uthman continued to hold a significant role during the reign of Caliph Umar. He was one of the six people that Umar appointed to choose who the next caliph would be. This committee chose Uthman to be the next caliph, although Uthman himself voted for Ali to become caliph.
Illustration of Muhammad with the first three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman
Uthman as Caliph
So, what did Uthman do as caliph, and what was he like?
| Area | Summary |
| Finance | Uthman's business background helped him to introduce financial reforms that greatly increased the wealth of the caliphate. He relaxed restrictions on the sale of lands in conquered territories, enabling trade to flourish. He also increased the public allowance that Umar had introduced by about 25%, further establishing the welfare state in Islam. Caliph Umar created a system whereby people would pay taxes, and the Islamic government would distribute this to the poor and needy in the Islamic community. Uthman increased the allowance that people had to regularly pay by about 25% in order to give more money to the poor. |
| Military | Uthman's reign saw further military successes and conquests. His armies conquered territory up to modern-day Pakistan in the east and the region of the Maghreb in north Africa in the west. Uthman also enabled his kinsman Muawiya, who was the governor of Syria, to set up a navy. The new Islamic navy won a significant battle against the Byzantines in 655, which became known as the Battle of the Masts. |
| Popularity | Uthman was an unpopular caliph during his lifetime. Uthman tended to favour his own relatives and close friends for official positions, which made many other leading figures in the Islamic empire resentful of the growing Umayyad power. This was especially acute since the Banu Umayya clan had originally been one of the Prophet Muhammad's greatest enemies. Nepotism The practice of favouring your own relatives or friends for official positions in government or employment In 656, aware of the discontent growing against him, Uthman decided to call an assembly of all the governors of the caliphate and anyone with a grievance to share, so that he could determine what the grievances were and how to move forward. Meanwhile, there was a revolt in Egypt and a force that was anti-Uthman took power there, deposing Uthman's governor. |
Death of Uthman ibn Affan
In summer 656, 1000 rebels assembled from across the caliphate to protest against Uthman in Medina. They besieged Uthman's house, but Uthman refused to fight despite the fact that his supporters outnumbered the rebels, saying that he wanted to avoid bloodshed among fellow believers.
However, one Kharijite managed to slip inside the house and kill Uthman. Uthman's two wives were also harmed in the attack. He died before he could name a successor, and Ali proclaimed himself caliph, leading to the first conflict of the Islamic community.
Kharijites
The Kharijites were an early sect in Islam who believed that the rightful heir to the Prophet Muhammad's leadership of Islam was Ali. They wanted to kill Uthman because they saw him as standing in the way of Ali's rightful position as caliph.
Uthman ibn Affan Quotes
One of the lesser-known facts about Caliph Uthman is that he had a talent for proclaiming wise sayings about faith and life. Here are a few examples of quotes attributed to Uthman ibn Affan.
You will not be conscious of the reality of faith till love for Allah is held dearer than the passion to acquire wealth.
The highest degree in Iman (faith) is that you always regard yourself in the presence of Allah.
Acquire wisdom from the story of those who have already passed.
The thought of the spiritual world sheds light on the soul, but the thought of the terrestrial world casts darkness thereon. 2
Uthman ibn Affan Achievements
Let's look at an overview of the things that Uthan ibn Affan achieved:
- Military Successes - nearly all of Uthman's military expeditions met with success. By the end of his period of rule, the Islamic caliphate had conquered lands as far west as north Africa and as far east as modern day Pakistan.
- Naval Success - Uthman built up the first Islamic navy, which won an astounding victory against the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of the Masts in 655.
- Financial Reforms - Uthman's skill in finance led to a period of prosperity in the Islamic caliphate.
- Welfare State - Uthman consolidated and expanded the early welfare state introduced by his predecessor, Umar.
- Unity - Uthman may have had some serious opponents, but on the whole he managed to maintain unity within the Islamic caliphate. It was on his death that the conflict within Islam about who had the right to become caliph erupted into real violence.
- Qur'an - Uthman organised the first official compilation of the Qur'an. This is the holy book of Islam.
An ancient copy of a page of the Qur'an
Uthman ibn Affan Stories and Historiography
Now we know all about Uthman ibn Affan, let's explore some key areas of historical inquirt.
Good Caliph/Bad Caliph?
The popular story of Caliph Uthman in Islam today is that he was a pious leader, whose reign was characterised by peace and prosperity. Sunni Muslims believe that Uthman's downfall came about because of his relaxed approach to leadership. He relaxed many of the financial and social restrictions which Umar had introduced, and therefore, Sunnis think that people took advantage of Uthman's lenient way of handling the caliphate.
Sunni Muslims
The largest branch of Islam; contrasts with Shia Muslims, the minority branch of Islam, that holds different beliefs and customs
However, not everyone agrees with this interpretation. Historian Wilferd Madelung argues that this rosy picture of Uthman was only developed later, and that people at the time believed Uthman was a poor caliph. He points out that
grievances against...[Uthman] were substantial by the standards of his time.3
This perspective is corroborated by Heather Keaney's analysis of three ninth-century Islamic chronicles. She finds that two of the three perspectives at this time viewed Uthman as:
corrupt at worst, weak at best.4
Corroborate
To confirm or give support to a finding
This shows that the current story of Uthman's glorious and pious reign is an over-simplification and certainly not how early Muslims perceived this caliph.
Fig. 2 - The iconic calligraphy of the third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman 5
Why did Uthman die?
The second great debate centres on the question of why Uthman was assassinated - was it his fault, what were the reasons for the rebellion, and why was there such conflict about his rule?
| On one hand | On the other hand |
| Professor Gibb argues that the conflict that led to Uthman's death came about because Uthman had allowed Meccans to rise to power and wealth during the post-conquest phase of his reign. This made the tribesmen of Medina, who had enjoyed privilege under Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar, very jealous.6 | Historian Martin Hinds argues that the conflict emerged because Uthman preferred a centralised form of leadership where the old tribal leaders had more sway. This was different to his predecessors' rules which allowed provinces a greater degree of independence and used 'new' leaders in Medina. Although Uthman tried to compromise and listen to these grievances from the provinces and the 'new' Medinan leaders, Hinds sees this decision as a form of weakness which enabled Uther's assassination. He contrasts Uthman's willingness to compromise with Muawiya I's decision to only rely on the old tribal leaders, which was far more effective at quelling opposition.7 |
Uthman ibn Affan - Key takeaways
- Uthman ibn Affan was the third Rashidun Caliph, who ruled for twelve years between 644 and 656.
- Uthman was a close companion of Abu Bakr, and he married the Prophet Muhammad's daughter Ruqayyah, making him the prophet's son-in-law.
- Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated in 656 by a Kharijite who wanted Ali to become caliph instead.
- Uthman's reign was characterised by military success, financial prosperity and nepotism.
- Uthman is often seen as a pious and moral leader, but some argue that this was a retrospective view and that people at the time did not like or respect him.
References
- Fig. 1 - Coins minted by Uthman (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg) by Mohammad Adil (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Mohammad_adil) licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en)
- Abu Zainab, 'Islamic Quotes of Uthman ibn Affan', topislamic.com (2013) [accessed 20/07/2022].
- Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad; A Study of the Early Caliphate (1998), p. 78.
- Heather Keaney, 'Confronting the Caliph: Uthman ibn Affan in Three Abbasid Chronicles', Studia Islamica 106 (2011), p. 29.
- Fig. 2 - The iconic calligraphy of Caliph Uthman (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rashidun_Caliph_Uthman_ibn_Affan_-_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B9%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.svg) by Petermaleh (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Petermaleh&action=edit&redlink=1) licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en)
- H.A.R. Gibb, 'An Interpretation of Islamic History', Journal of World History 1 (1953), pp. 39-62.
- Martin Hinds, 'The Murder of Caliph Uthman', International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972), pp. 450-469.
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