When we think of nationalism, we often think of the French Revolution or the American Revolution. Or maybe messages of liberty and equality, the overthrow of the monarchy and the implementation of liberal democracy. However, there are many different forms of nationalism, and one important form of nationalism is anti-colonial nationalism. In order to understand this, let's take a look at one of the best examples of anti-colonial nationalism in the form of the Haitian revolution and how it led to Haitian independence. The Haitian Revolution serves as a symbol of hope, inspiration and a reminder of the power of collective action.
Haitian Revolution summary
Any Haitian Revolution summary will discuss this period as beginning with the successful slave insurrection of 1791 and ending with the establishment of Haiti as an independent and sovereign state in 1804. Haiti became the first country to be founded by formerly enslaved people and is referred to as the first Black republic.
The Haitian Revolution was an attack on the brutal French colonial regimes and is an early example of anti-colonial nationalism.
Anti-Colonial Nationalism refers to the rejection of rule from colonial powers and the desire for independence and sovereignty from colonial interference.
The Haitian Revolution is a pivotal moment in the history of the Atlantic world as itwas the largest slave insurrection since the Third Servile War in 73 BC. The revolution was initially led by Toussaint L'Overture, a former slave and a Haitian military general. After L'Ouverture's death, Jean-Jacque Dessalines took over and declared independence for Haiti in 1804.
Facts about the Haitian Revolution
It's a very big topic, so here we will discuss some of the most important facts about the Haitian Revolution. By 1659 the French had established themselves on the western third of the island of Haiti in the Caribbean. The island became split between the French (Saint Domingue) and Spanish (Santo Domingo) which later became Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Saint Domingue became known as the 'pearl of the Caribbean' and became the world's largest exporter of coffee and sugar. Commercial activity in France was dependent on the institution of slavery and Saint Domingue was at the top of it.
The Haitian revolution is often credited with being the first successful slave insurrection though this does not mean it was the first slave insurrection. Slave revolts were endemic to the Caribbean and prior to the success of the 1791 slave revolt, there were eight failed revolts in Saint Domingue. There was hardly a generation of enslaved men and women who did not take their actions to the level of violent revolt.
By 1685 Saint Domingue was also under the Black Codes of King Louis XIV of France which restricted the movement and activity of slaves and prescribed corporal punishment against slaves in order to maintain order. The treatment of slaves in the Caribbean was incredibly violent and cruel.
A slave who struck his master would be executed and fugitive slaves would be branded or have their ears cut off. Any free Black people who harboured fugitive slaves would also be beaten by the slave owner and fined.
The Haitian Revolution took place amid the backdrop of the French Revolution, which sought to highlight French hypocrisy. Whilst the French sought freedom from monarchal control and advocated for liberty and equality in Haiti, they denied enslaved Africans those rights.
Another important piece of information in regard to the Haitian revolution was the retainment of history and culture amongst the slaves. Many slaves in Saint Domingue were from Congo and the majority of the slave population were not born into slavery, they were taken from Africa and had memories of this. This meant that many of the slaves in Haiti still retained their own languages, customs and religions, and it was this generation of slaves who fought the most violently against slavery and colonisation as they could remember the home to which they were stolen from.
Haitian Revolution leaders
Every great revolution needs courageous leaders, let's take a look at two of the Haitian Revolution's leaders.
Toussaint L’Ouverture 1743-1803
Toussaint L'Ouverture was a military general and was the most prominent leader of the Haitian independence movement. L'Ouverture facilitated the emancipation of the slaves in Haiti and negotiated for Haiti to be governed by former slaves as a French protectorate.
Fig. 1 Painting of Général Toussaint L'Ouverture
L'Ouverture was born a slave in Haiti and began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue.
L'Ouverture's relationship with France was tumultuous as he fought both for France and against them before finally firmly fighting against France for Haitian independence which led to his death in 1803. Louverture is referred to fondly as the "Father of Haiti today.
L'Ouverture fought for the French until it became clear that they didn't intend on freeing slav es in Haiti.
Jean-Jacque Dessalines 1758-1806
The Haitian revolution was led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines after Toussaint L'Ouverture was captured and died in prison. Dessalines had previously been L'Ouverture's principal lieutenant.
Fig. 2 Painting of Jean-Jacque Dessalines
At the Battle of Vertières in 1803, Dessalines defeated a French army and under the 1805 constitution, Jean-Jacques Dessalines became the first ruler of an independent Haiti. Under the rule of Dessalines, Haiti was the first nation to abolish slavery permanently. Jean-Jacque Dessalines was named Emperor of Haiti which was stylised as Jacques I until his 1806 assassination. Alongside L'Ouverture, Dessalines is regarded as a founding father of Haiti.
Battles of the Haitian Revolution
There were three important phases and battles of the Haitian Revolution these were: the slave revolt of 1791, the abolition of slavery in 1794, and Napoleon's challenge from 1802-1804.
The slave revolt of 1791
On the night of 24th August 1791, thousands of slaves attended a Bois Caiman Voudou ceremony that signalled the beginning of the revolt. Over the next ten days, slaves had gained control of the entire Northern Province and within weeks, 100,000 slaves had joined the revolt. As the violence escalated, the revolting slaves burned 180 plantations and killed 4,000 white people on the island, the total damage amounted to 2 million francs. In September of 1791, surviving white people organised themselves into militias and fought back resulting in the death of around 15,000 Black people.
The Bois Caiman Voudou ceremony was important ritually, culturally, and in military strategy. Though the true details aren't clear, it's believed that a pig was slaughtered and its blood was given to attendees of the ceremony to drink in order to seal their loyalty to the cause of liberating Saint Domingue.
This was important as ritual ceremonies like this one were one of the only ways that enslaved Africans were allowed to gather in large groups.
Though demanding freedom from slavery, the slaves did not demand independence from France at this point. In fact, many of the revolting slaves argued that they were in fact fighting for the King of France in order to demand their rights as recognised Frenchmen.
The abolition of slavery in 1794
Select slaves in Haiti were declared free in 1973 by Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel who had been sent to Haiti with thousands of soldiers after the Haitian Revolution to reestablish French control. Sonthonax and Polverel were able to convince the French government to abolish slavery as they argued that if slavery was not abolished the French would lose Haiti altogether. However, it was not until 1974 that the French government confirmed this and abolished slavery, both in France and within all its colonies.
The abolition of slavery, however, did not mean there was an end to the plantation system, and in order to keep the colonies running former slaves returned to the plantation system. Under Toussaint L'Ouverture's leadership, the military was used to coerce former slaves into going back to return to work on the plantations. Whilst slaves were free, they still were essentially forced into labour. Saint Domingue still maintained loyalty to France at this point in time and therefore there was a desire to keep the colony up and running.
Napoleon's challenge from 1802-1804
Toussaint's loyalty towards France in this period had shifted and in his 1801 declaration, L'Ouverture decreed himself as governor-for-life and called on the establishment of an independent Saint Domingue. The shift occurred due to tensions and distrust between L'Ouverture and Napoleon, as Napoleon secretly planned to remove all Black officials from Haiti.
Napoleon Bonaparte took this as a threat and dispatched French forces to Saint Domingue in 1802 resulting in a descent into violence. Amidst the violence, Toussaint L'Ouverture was arrested and placed in a French jail where he subsequently died and Jean-Jacques Dessalines became the new leader of the Haitian Revolution.
Fig. 3 Painting of the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot
The French eventually surrendered during the continued violence, as they were also faced with outbreaks of yellow fever and also faced Polish troops who had joined the side of the Black population. Saint Domingue was established as an independent state under the name Haiti on the 1st of January 1804.
Haitian Revolution consequences
The Haitian Revolution and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation serve as a symbol of hope for, anti-colonial nationalism, black nationalism and nationalism in general. The citizenry of Haiti was defined as Black and this served as the first occurrence of the identification of Blackness as a political identity.
The Haitian Revolution serves as more than a symbol and more than a vague memory of a revolution. The events of the Haitian Revolution represent an existing space without slavery which gave people hope within a context where slavery was so rife and all-encompassing. The revolution is widely considered to be the most defining event in the history of Africans in the New World and served as an inspiration to later acts of anti-colonial nationalism such as the decolonisation era of the 1950s and 60s, particularly the events of the Algerian War.
The Haitian Revolution led to the creation of the first sovereign and post-colonial state in Latin America led by Black people. This created profound changes and affected world affairs. The decline and subsequent demise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade have been directly attributed to the events of the Haitian Revolution and Haiti serves as an example for the liberation movements of many nations.
Haitian independence - Key takeaways
- The Haitian Revolution refers to the period beginning with the successful slave insurrection of 1791 and ending with the establishment of Haiti as an independent and sovereign state in 1804.
- The most important leaders of the Haitian Revolution were Toussaint L'Ouverture and ean-Jacques Dessalines.
- The Haitian revolution is often credited with being the first successful slave insurrection.
- There were three phases of the Haitian Revolution, these were: the slave revolt of 1791, the abolition of slavery in 1794 and Napoleon's challenge from 1802-1804.
- The Haitian Revolution and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation serve as a symbol of hope for anti-colonial nationalism.
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