Ethnic Groups in America

Everyone knows the US is a very multicultural, ethnically diverse nation, but what is less known is how this came to be. What are the histories of the major ethnic groups in the United States?

In this explanation, we will be looking at:

• The growth of ethnic groups in the US population
• Percentages of ethnic groups in America
• Examples of ethnic groups in America
• Minority ethnic groups in America
• Majority racial and ethnic groups in America

Growth of Ethnic Groups in US Population

When settlers arrived in the United States, they discovered a land that did not require "discovering" because it was already inhabited.

Although Western Europe provided the initial wave of immigrants, eventually, most immigrants to North America came from Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, and then Asia. Also, it is crucial to note the forced immigration of people from Africa in the slave trade. Most of these groups went through a phase of disenfranchisement when they first arrived and for quite some time afterwards.

Our society is now multicultural, though the degree to which this diversity is embraced varies, and its many manifestations have a significant political impact.

Ethnic Groups in America: Percentages

According to the US Census of 2020¹, the American population consists of:

• White or European Americans (including Hispanics) - 75.8%

• Hispanic or Latin Americans - 18.9%

• Black or African Americans - 13.6%

• Asian Americans - 6.1%

• American Indians and Alaska Natives (Native Americans) - 1.3%

• Mixed/multi-ethnic Americans - 2.9%

• White Americans (non-Hispanic) - 59.3%

Fig. 1 - The American population is diverse.

Examples of Ethnic Groups in America

There are many examples of ethnic groups in America, too many to study in detail in this explanation. We will therefore look at some of the most prominent ethnic groups in the US.

Minority Ethnic Groups in America

Below, we will explore notable minority ethnic groups in America.

Native American Groups in the US

The first immigrants to America came thousands of years before Europeans. Early Indians are believed to have migrated searching for big game (a wild animal) to hunt, which they discovered in the Americas in vast herds of grazing herbivores.

Native American culture developed over the centuries and then the millennia into a complex web of numerous interconnected tribes.

Native American History

The arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 changed everything for Native American culture. Columbus mistakenly thought he had arrived in the East Indies and called the natives "Indians," a term that has endured for centuries despite being inaccurate and applied to hundreds of different tribes/cultures.

Native Americans and European colonists have a brutal history of oppression. European settlement in America all but wiped out the native population. Although most deaths among Native Americans were due to their lack of immunity to diseases brought by Europeans, the horrible treatment of them by colonists also contributed greatly.

The Persecution of Native Americans

Following the founding of the US government, discrimination against Native Americans was formalized. The most significant laws compelled tribes to move, made it easier for the government to take land, and forced Native Americans to live with European settlers.

The creation of Indian boarding schools in the late nineteenth century further undermined Native American culture.

The main objective of these schools, which were operated by Christian missionaries and the US government, was to "civilize" Native American children and assimilate them into White society. Children were cut off from friends and family, required to speak English, cut their hair, and practice Christianity in school. There was widespread physical and sexual abuse which was not even addressed until 1987.

Some academics contend that nearly a century of abuse at these boarding schools is to blame for many of the issues Native Americans face today.

The Current Status of Native Americans

Until the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, Native American culture was still being eradicated. Indian tribes received most of the Bill of Rights' protections thanks to the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968. Tribal governments were recognized and given more authority by new laws.

There are now very few Indian boarding schools, and Native American cultural organizations work hard to maintain and preserve old traditions to prevent them from being lost forever. However, the effects of centuries of deterioration are still strongly felt.

African American Groups in the US

The term 'African American' can encompass a range of individuals and communities, from recent African immigrants to Afro-Latinos (Latin Americans with predominantly African ancestry).

We will mainly focus on the experiences of enslaved people forcibly brought from Africa to the United States and their descendants.

African American History

The first Africans arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619 when a Dutch maritime captain sold them as indentured laborers. Both Black and White people coexisted as indentured servants for the following century.

However, the agricultural economy required more and cheaper labor as it grew. As a result, Virginia approved the slave codes in 1705, which stated that any foreign-born non-Christian could be a slave and that slaves were considered property. Black Africans were abducted and transported to the New World via the Middle Passage, a transatlantic voyage, over the following 150 years.

Then, the 'slave class' was established due to colonial (and later American) slave rules that defined the offspring of a slave as a slave. Slaves were being purchased and sold across state lines during the internal slave trade of the US by 1869.

The Persecution of African Americans

Slavery is perhaps the most glaring example of subjugation. Slaveholders and supporters of slavery had to believe that Black people were fundamentally inferior to justify their systemic dehumanization.

In this, they were greatly aided by the fact that slaves were denied even the most fundamental rights. They were beaten, raped, executed, and denied education and medical care. Even after slavery was abolished, the segregation of society meant that White and Black people lived entirely separate lives, with Black individuals treated as second-class citizens.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended this and dealt the biggest blow to formalized racism in America, outlawing discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. However, sociologists assert that institutionalized racism still exists.

The Current Status of African Americans

True equality has not yet been achieved, even though official, state-sponsored discrimination against African Americans has been outlawed.

An interesting case study is the treatment of Barack Obama, the first African American president elected in 2008. While all presidents have occasionally been publicly mocked, much of the criticisms of Obama have been race-based. The most egregious of these was the birth certificate debate, where the "birther" movement questioned his citizenship and eligibility to take office.

Even though Black people have made significant strides since slavery and segregation, the effects of centuries of oppression are still felt today.

Asian American Groups in the US

Asian Americans represent various cultures and origins, just like many other groups this section examines. For instance, it can refer to people from very different regions - South and East Asia.

Asian immigrants have arrived in America in waves, at various points in time and for various reasons. The main focus of this section will be on East Asian Americans - Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese immigrants - and their different experiences.

Fig. 2 - The treatment of ethnic minorities in the US has been a notable point of contention.

Asian American History

Chinese immigrants were the first Asians to move to the US in the mid-19th century. They mainly traveled to the American West and worked on the Transcontinental Railroad and other manual jobs, e.g., agriculture and mining. Like many immigrants, they persevered despite the difficult conditions and low pay.

After the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Japanese immigration started, with immigrants moving to the mainland US and Hawaii to work in the sugar industry. Since the government back in Japan advocated for Japanese immigrants, they could bring their families and create new generations much quicker than the Chinese.

The most recent Asian immigration originated from Korea and Vietnam in the second half of the 20th century. Vietnamese immigration mostly started after 1975, whereas Korean immigration has been slower. Vietnamese immigrants also arrived as asylum-seekers, unlike other Asian populations who were economic migrants.

Discrimination Against Asian Americans

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 abruptly ended Chinese immigration, brought on by increased anti-Chinese sentiment. White employees accused Chinese immigrants of stealing their jobs, and Chinese workers remained isolated in Chinatowns in cities as they couldn't afford to go home.

The Immigration Act of 1924 then restricted Chinese immigration further. It also contained the National Origins Act, which sought to limit "undesirable" immigrants. Chinese immigration only resumed after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, when numerous Chinese families were reunited.

Japanese Americans and other Asian immigrants were subject to the California Foreign Land Law of 1913, which outlawed alien land ownership. The Japanese internment camps of World War II were even more abominable.

The Current Status of Asian Americans

Despite the seemingly positive perception of Asian Americans as the model minority, they have and continue to experience interpersonal and structural racism.

This stereotype is frequently used to describe Asian populations in the US, and it can lead to stigmatizing members of this community who fall short of the standards. All Asians being viewed as intelligent and competent might also result in a lack of urgently required government aid and educational and professional discrimination.

Arab American Groups in the US

The notion of what it means to be an Arab American is complicated due to several reasons. Arab Americans represent many religions, and the Arab world includes northern Africa and the Middle East regions. People who speak Arabic as their primary language or whose heritage is in that region may identify as Arabs.

The question of Arab identity has also been difficult for the U.S. Census. There is no official ethnic category of "Arab American," and those who enter it under "other race" are classified as White when the Census data is analyzed.

Arab American History

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the arrival of the first Arab immigrants in this nation. They were mainly Christians from Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria who immigrated to escape persecution and improve their lives.

Nearly half of today's Arab Americans are descended from these early immigrants, who were more likely to identify as Syrian or Lebanese than Arab (Myers 2007).

From the 1920s until 1965, all immigration was restricted; however, since 1965, Arab immigration has remained consistent. Since they were fleeing political upheaval and seeking better prospects, immigrants from this era have been more likely to be Muslim and higher educated.

Discrimination Against Arab Americans

Arab Americans have had a turbulent relationship with non-Arabs in the US. According to Helen Samhan (2001), cultural and political anti-Arab sentiment in the United States was greatly influenced by Arab-Israeli confrontations in the 1970s. While some Middle Eastern nations contest Israel's existence, the United States has historically backed the Jewish state, causing disputes.

Even if most Americans with Middle Eastern heritage oppose terrorism, they are still the victim of stereotypes. The events of 9/11 significantly impacted Americans and strengthened anti-Arab prejudice. Numerous hate crimes against people who appeared to be of Arab heritage were committed following 9/11, and the label "terrorist" is still used as a racist insult.

The Current Status of Arab Americans

Even if the number of hate crimes against Arab Americans has decreased, they continue to experience bigotry and prejudice. Since 9/11, Arab Americans have been the target of routine racial profiling.

Being young and seeming Arab is enough to provoke a special inspection or detention, especially when traveling by plane. There are no indications that Islamophobia (irrational fear or prejudice of Muslims) is going away.

Hispanic American Groups in the US

The Hispanic-American community is not only multicultural but also has numerous names. "Hispanic" and "Latino/Latinx" are often used interchangeably, though they mean different things - Hispanic refers to someone from a Spanish-speaking country, while Latino refers to someone from Latin America (regardless of language). Brazilians, for example, are Latino but not Hispanic (as they speak Portuguese).

There is also discord over whether each term is appropriate for a diverse population.

Though there are many other groups, the experiences of Mexican and Cuban Americans will be contrasted in this section.

Hispanic American History

The oldest and largest Hispanic subgroup is Mexican Americans, who arrived in the United States in the early 1900s to fulfil the demand for low-paid labor. Immigrants would stay for a while and then return to Mexico with money. Moving back and forth from Mexico is relatively simple due to the country's common border with the US.

The second-largest Hispanic group, Cuban Americans, have a very different history, started by Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution. The establishment of communism meant that many wealthy Cubans went north, mostly to the Miami area, to avoid having their possessions seized by the government.

Discrimination Against Hispanic Americans

For many years, legitimately and illegally, Mexican laborers crossed the border into the US to work in the fields. In the 1940s-50s, the government established the Bracero Program, which protected temporary Mexican workers. However, "Operation Wetback," which deported many undocumented Mexican immigrants, was also implemented in 1954.

Sociologist Douglas Massey (2006) contends that most Mexicans don't intend to immigrate permanently. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 strengthened borders, however, which increased illegal one-way immigration.

Cuban Americans have generally thrived, likely due to their high relative income and education and receiving communist-refugee status. Then, the 1995 Cuban Migration Agreement restricted legal immigration from Cuba, leaving Cubans to attempt illicit boat immigration. Now, Cubans apprehended at sea are returned to Cuba, but those who arrive at the shore are allowed to remain in the US.

The Current Status of Hispanic Americans

Mexican Americans, particularly those in the country unlawfully, are at the center of the American immigration debate. This is because few other minority groups have entered the country illegally in such numbers (Myers, 2007) (due to a lack of resources for legal migration).

According to Jacob Vigdor (2008), rates of economic and social assimilation for Mexican immigrants are often poor, and those who are there illegally are at a further disadvantage.

Cuban Americans, on the other hand, are frequently regarded as a model minority due to their anti-communist agenda and relative wealth. They are particularly involved in the politics and economy of south Florida. Like Asian Americans, though, being perceived as successful can mask real issues Cuban Americans experience.

Fig. 3 - Different ethnic groups have experienced America differently.

Majority Racial and Ethnic Groups in America

Now, let's move on to the ethnic majority group - White or European Americans.

European American Groups in the US

From the early 19th to the mid-20th century, most immigrants to the US were White ethnic Europeans. They joined a just-formed nation that was largely composed of White Protestants from England.

The History of European Americans

Starting in the 1820s, a sizeable number of European immigrants arrived from Germany and Ireland. Germans arrived seeking economic opportunities and as political exiles from a harsh regime. They were wealthy and established German-dominated communities in the Midwest.

Particularly following the Irish Potato Famine of 1845, Irish immigrants of the time weren't usually as well-off. They primarily landed in the East Coast's cities, working as laborers and encountering severe prejudice.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Southern and Eastern Europeans started arriving. Italians started pouring in the 1890s, fleeing poverty. Around the same time, people from Eastern Europe - Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary - began to arrive due to political turmoil, a lack of available land, and agricultural failures. Jewish immigrants fleeing pogroms (anti-Jewish uprisings) were also a part of this surge.

Discrimination Against European Americans

Aside from the period during the two World Wars, when attitudes towards Germans were very negative, German immigrants did not face particularly significant discrimination. They were able to settle down and establish neighborhoods.

However, Irish immigrants, who were already destitute, faced extreme prejudice and became an underclass. Escaping religious, cultural, and ethnic oppression by the English in Ireland, Irish immigrants, unfortunately, faced similar issues in the US. They were persecuted by Anglo-Americans and stereotyped almost exactly like African Americans, and formed tight, insular Irish communities as a result.

Southern and Eastern Europeans also faced severe discrimination. Italian immigrants were viewed as 'corrupting' the American race, were forced to live in segregated slums, subjected to violence, and were both overworked and underpaid compared to other laborers.

The Current Status of European Americans

German Americans are now fully assimilated into the dominant Anglo culture and form the largest group of European Americans. Irish Americans are the next biggest group, and have gradually gained acceptance and become assimilated. Aside from "Little Italy" neighborhoods which originate from the slums Italian immigrants used to live in, they too have, by and large, become part of other wealthy White communities.