It's tempting to lump the First and Second World Wars together into 30 years of mayhem. This argument fails to recognize the twenty-year period from 1919 to 1939, called the interwar period: a brief period of optimism and prosperity before the economic crisis and the rise of fascism.
Historians still debate whether the Second World War was inevitable or could have been avoided. To help us answer this, we will look at the interwar period's history and the dynamics and events.
Interwar Period History
A challenge in discussing the interwar period's history is the specter of the Second World War. Therefore, most studies of interwar period history will focus on examining how the events of the interwar period contributed to the start of WWII.
Hindsight: A Blessing and a Curse
As historians, we have both the benefit and curse of hindsight. On the one hand, when examining interwar period history, we can examine it for insights into how the Second World War began. On the other hand, it colors our examination and judgment of the period in ways that decision-makers on the ground at the time could not. Therefore, we should try to balance our views of their decisions both in terms of their ultimate consequences and on how they could or could not respond to developments in their time.
Interwar Period Summary
A quick summary of the interwar period is that immediately after World War One difficulties arose out of the peace treaty, followed by a period of optimism where those issues appeared to be solved, leading to a brief time of prosperity and peace for much of the world.
This illusory peace was shattered by the Great Depression, and the 1930s became a new period of tension. The rise of aggressive leaders, like Hitler, complicated the situation, and ultimately led to war in 1939.
Was the Second World War Inevitable?
An orthodox view is that Hitler's aggressive foreign policy was the main cause. Historian A. J. P. Taylor challenged this viewpoint by arguing a variety of causes, including the actions (or lack thereof) of Britain and France. As you read through this historical interwar period summary and the other more detailed articles in this study set, consider if you agree with the view that the war was inevitable, and how much blame Hitler merits for its outbreak. Construct your position as a historical argument!
Interwar Period Timeline
See the interwar period timeline below to see some key events of the interwar period.
Fig. 1: Interwar Period Timeline. Made by the author Adam McConnaughhay, a StudySmarter original.
Interwar Period Events
Interwar period events were marked by a shift from optimism for a peaceful and prosperous world to a march toward a second war.
When war came in 1939, it was a result of
twenty years of decisions taken or not taken."1
Towards Peace?
Up to 1929, events in Europe seemed to be headed towards permanent peace.
Weimar Germany: From Crisis to Seeming Stability
Germany in the interwar period is often called Weimar Germany or the Weimar Republic, after the democratic republican government set up in the city of Weimar in 1918.
The Weimar Republic faced many challenges in its first years. Germans were humiliated and angry with what they felt were the unfair terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Especially frustrating were the reparations Germany had to pay, even while they had to rebuild their own economy. In 1923, France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr industrial area to extract reparations. The German government responded by printing money, leading to hyperinflation and an economic crisis.
The new Chancellor, Gustav Stresemann, guided Germany through the crisis, stabilizing the value of the currency while committing Germany to make its reparations payments. The 1924 Dawes Plan provided US loans to Germany to help it pay for the reparations and rebuild its own industry.
This sparked a Golden Age in Germany. The economy improved and by the late 1920s, German industrial production exceeded pre-WWI levels. Culture flourished, and Germany was getting along with the rest of Europe.
League of Nations
The League of Nations was created after World War One to peacefully resolve conflicts.
It successfully solved its first major challenge, a border dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1921, and it quickly resolved a war between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925. It solved several other small conflicts in Europe and around the world in the 1920s, while also making progress on social development and international cooperation.
Fig 2 - Meeting of the Leauge of Nations.
The Spirit of Locarno
A watershed moment in the early interwar period events was the signing of the 1925 Locarno Treaties. They were a series of treaties signed by Germany and its neighbors that resolved remaining disputes over the boundaries of Germany.
As a result, Germany, was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926. People spoke of a "spirit of Locarno," where problems could be solved by discussion and multilateral agreement. Through the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, over 60 countries pledged to never go to war unless it was in self-defense.
Cracks in the System
This optimistic spirit around the early interwar period covered up cracks in the system.
In Weimar Germany, people still harbored resentment at the Treaty of Versailles. Its economy also became highly dependent on US loans. The government's structure also had weaknesses that would eventually be exploited by Hitler.
Meanwhile, the League of Nations's power depended on its members' willingness to use tools like economic sanctions to stop aggression. It solved some smaller disputes, but it was unclear if it could succeed to the same degree against more powerful countries.
Even agreements like the Kellogg-Briand Pact, while great on paper, ultimately depended on countries adhering to the agreement, and it had no clear enforcement mechanisms.
These cracks did not cause major problems at first, but once a new crisis set in, they became exposed, leading to the collapse of this seemingly sound foundation for peace.
The Great Depression Exposes the Cracks
In late 1929, the US experienced a series of severe stock market declines that set off a chain reaction that sunk the US economy and spread to the rest of the world.
Trying to protect its economy, the US imposed tariffs on imports, and other countries responded in kind. These policies caused a decline in international trade, stifling the world economy.
Furthermore, the US loans to Germany ceased. With its economy declining, Germany couldn't repay these loans or pay reparations. Without the reparation payments, France and Great Britain also struggled to pay their own wartime debts.
The Great Depression's First Indirect Effect
Countries initiated a "we first" policy. This was problematic for the League of Nations, as its members, especially its leaders Britain and France, were less willing to implement economic sanctions for fear of hurting their economies, much less go to war to stop bad actors if they didn't feel a direct threat.
How horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas masks here because of a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing."2
Exam Tip!
Exam questions will ask you to construct arguments using historical sources. Consider the quote above, from British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain discussing why he didn't believe the UK should go to war to protect Czechoslovakia from Germany in 1938. How does it show how countries were less willing to act to protect others in the later interwar period?
Fig 3 - People outside a failed bank in Germany.
Rise of Fascism and Totalitarianism
The second indirect effect of the Great Depression was the growth in support for fascism, especially in Germany.
Rise of the Nazis
The Nazi Party was founded in the early 1920s, but failed to impact German politics before 1929. However, as the Great Depression wrecked Germany, the Nazis ascended. By 1932, it was the largest party in the German Parliament, the Reichstag. Its percentage of representatives had grown from less than 3% in 1924 to nearly 40%.
Although they lacked a majority, the Nazis presented themselves as a better alternative to the leftist Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party, allowing them to form a coalition with other center and right parties.
Once Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933, he began dismantling democracy. Besides curtailing democracy and scapegoating Jews and communists for Germany's economic problems, he also adopted an aggressive foreign policy.
During the years of
prosperity between 1924 and 1928 the Nazis as good as disappeared
from the political arena. But again, the deeper the capitalists
subsided into crisis, the more firmly did the fascist party sit in the
saddle over them."3
Fig 4 - Hitler oversees a Nazi parade.
Growth of Aggressive Nationalism in the Interwar Period
Some countries turned to aggressive foreign policy to solve their economic problems and gain domestic support by uniting people behind a program of expansion and conquest.
Aggressive nationalism in the interwar period is best represented by
- Japan's invasion of China in 1932
- Italy's invasion of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in 1935
- Germany's infringement of the Treaty of Versailles
In the interwar period later days, this new aggression undermined the foundations of peace that had been built earlier.
The League Fails to Live Up to the Challenge
The League of Nations failed to take effective action to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. In 1934, Hitler derailed the league's disarmament conference, withdrawing Germany from the league and rebuilding Germany's army in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
Again, the League failed to stop the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. It was clear it was no longer an effective peacekeeping body. By the time Hitler's aggression were felt outside Germany, the League had been effectively sidelined.
Hitler Takes Europe to the Brink
Hitler achieved support in part from his aggressive rhetoric that disparaged and called for the reversal of the Treaty of Versailles.
Once in power, the Nazis rebuilt the German military, providing jobs and a source of national pride. While the League was failing in Abyssinia, they reoccupied the Rhineland, a blatant violation of the Treaty of Versailles. They eventually looked to regain territory lost under the Treaty and even expand Germany further.
Appeasement Fails
Great Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement toward Hitler in an effort to avoid war. This policy was based on the idea that conceding to Hitler's demands would prevent war.
Appeasement
Hoping to avoid war, Britain and France attempted to appease Hitler by giving him what he wanted. They did not act to stop his reoccupation of the Rhineland. When he occupied and annexed Austria in 1938, another action prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles, they also did not act.
The best representation of appeasement is the Munich Conference of 1938. Hitler had demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia be given to Germany. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, the architect of appeasement, desperately attempted to broker an agreement. This occurred at the Munich Conference when the leaders of Britain, France, Italy, and Germany met, excluding both the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, the country whose fate they were determining. The Conference gave Hitler nearly all his demands.
Chamberlain and this policy have been judged harshly by history. Instead of satisfying Hitler, it emboldened him. At the same time, it alienated the Soviet Union from a potential alliance with them against Germany. There is evidence Hitler never believed Britain and France to follow through on their pledge to defend Poland and was, in fact, surprised by their declaration of war, evidence that shows how appeasement backfired in its goal to pacify him and actually helped to provoke the Second World War.
Exam Tip!
Hitler's aggressiveness is just one piece of the puzzle in examining the causes of World War Two. Consider the roles the League of Nations's failure, the Great Depression, and appeasement played. Think about how you could construct historical arguments comparing the relevance of each.
Fig 5 - Leaders meeting at Munich.
By late 1938, it was clear appeasement had failed. Hitler seized Austria and Czechoslovakia successfully, then turned his eyes to Poland. Britain and France pledged to defend Poland and began rebuilding their militaries preparing for war.
The Soviet Union, fearing Britain and France would not act to help them if Germany invaded, signed a non-aggression pact with Germany in August 1939, paving the way for Hitler to invade Poland the following month. Britain and France made good on their pledge and declared war on Germany.
The interwar period was now over and the Second World War had begun.
Interwar Period - Key takeaways
- Interwar period history was marked by a period of optimism, peace, and prosperity up to around 1929.
- This optimistic period included the successful solving of disputes by the League of Nations and Germany's entrance into the peaceful community of European nations.
- However, the Great Depression exposed the cracks in this system, causing countries to turn inward and lack the will to solve conflicts in the 1930s.
- The rise of aggressive nationalism in the interwar period in the 1930s, most notably the Nazis in Germany, marched Europe toward a Second World War, which began in 1939.
References
- Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World, 2003.
- Neville Chamberalin, Speech to the House of Commons, September 27, 1938.
- Alfred Sohn-Rehel, The Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, 1987.
- Fig 4 - Hitler overseeing parade (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378,_Braunschweig,_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg) by unknown photographer in collection of German Federal Archives (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:German_Federal_Archives) licensed under Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en)
- Fig 5 - Munich Conference round table (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-052-24,_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen,_Mussolini,_Hitler,_Chamberlain.jpg) by unknown photographer in collection of German Federal Archives (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:German_Federal_Archives) licensed under Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en)
- Fig 3 - German bank run (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10246,_England,_Arbeitslose_vor_Gewerkschaftshaus.jpg) by unknown photographer in collection of German Federal Archives (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:German_Federal_Archives) licensed under Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en)
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