Mussolini

How did a staunch socialist become the first fascist leader of the 20th century? After Mussolini learned that Karl Marx had proclaimed that social revolution usually follows war, his intention was to reset the political system and economy in Italy. Mussolini saw the only way to accomplish this clean sweep was for one man to act as a supreme leader for all decisions, i.e., a dictator.

Fig. 1- Benito Mussolini

The Life and Political History of Benito Mussolini

Mussolini was born July 29th, 1883, in Predappio, Italy. His father was a blacksmith as well as a socialist journalist. While later as dictator he would proclaim to be a man of the people, he exaggerated his family's financial struggles. His father was also a leader in the National Guard, and his mother was a teacher. Mussolini’s father spent the majority of his family’s income on taverns and his mistresses, which were the causes of the family’s poor finances.

When Mussolini was a child, he was known to be a difficult and mean child. He often bullied others and when in school he stabbed a classmate with a pen knife. Benito also had no respect for authority and would fight back when school officials would attempt to discipline him. He was expelled from two schools but passed his final exams with ease. In addition to being hateful and violent, he was extremely intelligent.

Early Adulthood and Socialist Ideals

After completing his education, he worked as a teacher but soon learned this was not his path. Mussolini saw socialism as the answer to society’s problems and believed that a violent revolution was required in order to establish socialism as the governing ideal. However, his opposition to the war led him to immigrate to Switzerland in 1902 to avoid military service. His socialist ideology continued until he was swayed by Karl Marx’s conclusion that social revolution usually follows war.

Until that point, he had been staunchly in opposition to war, but upon that revelation, he became violently pro-war. He resigned from his job as an editor at a major socialist newspaper. Financial support from the French government and Italian industrialists allowed him to become the editor of “The People of Italy” and gave birth to the fascist doctrine. He achieved this through the use of nationalism to unite Italians. This was the beginning of Mussolini’s military efforts and he left for World War One.

He was wounded as a sharpshooter and in February 1918 he began to proclaim the need for a leader who could re-set Italy onto the correct path. This dictator would have the power to make a “clean sweep” of Italy’s economic and political crises. He took these situations as opportunities to create a new force in Italian politics. After a meeting that included almost 200 political players, they established the Fasci di combattimento (fighting bands). These are groups of fighters bound by ties as close as those that secured the fasces of lictors. These lictors were the symbol of ancient Roman authority and appealed to the nationalism Mussolini encouraged.

His efforts led to local fascist squads or militias launching attacks on socialist leaders, party offices, and villages in the countryside. These attacks hobbled leftist government officials from enacting any sort of resistance to Mussolini’s rise. While he did not have direct control over these small militias, he did organize groups to stage attacks in Milan and the surrounding area.

By late 1921 these fascist militias controlled much of Italy. The government which was dominated by middle-class liberals was ineffective in its efforts to control the political shift. In the summer of 1922, the remainder of the trade union had called for a nationwide strike. Mussolini began to proclaim that if the leftist would not end the strike, the fascists would. Fascist volunteers did stop the strike and allowed for their rise to power.

King Victor Emmanuel III confirmed Mussolini as the prime minister of Italy on October 31, 1922. Mussolini’s gifts as a speaker and organizer led to growing support from the Italian middle class. They were prepared to accept a dictatorship if the economic situation could be improved.

Fig. 2- A Roman lictor holding a Fasces.

Benito Mussolini's Accomplishments

Mussolini acted as an editor for multiple political publications and gained acclaim through his vocal support of war. He was an intelligent man, but he did not work well under anyone else’s authority. His belief that he was the man to turn the tide of the economy and political failures in Italy led to a large ego.

During his rule as a dictator, Mussolini united Italy under nationalism based upon the Holy Roman Empire and a return to its perceived perfection. These themes were carried into his actions and an example is the issuing of fake 20 lire silver coins. These were made to resemble Roman coins but acted only as propaganda and were not part of the actual economy. Mussolini worked tirelessly to maintain a positive image through propaganda which extended into whitewashing Italian losses.

Mussolini and World War Two

• Adolf Hitler controlled Germany in the 1930s and 1940s.
• Hitler and Mussolini led fascist governments but had different approaches.
• Prior to the outbreak of WWII, Mussolini and Hitler met together, even creating and signing a pact.
• The two leaders promised support in case of war.

Mussolini knew that a drawn-out war would be disastrous for Italy and in the early years of World War Two (WWII), he refrained from joining the Axis powers. He made a declaration of war on June 10th, 1940 and entered into WWII.

While he was a junior partner in the Axis alliance, he did not allow Hitler total control. Mussolini saw the absence of Italy’s inclusion in Hitler’s military campaigns and intelligence as a slight. Italy was left uninformed and in turn, Mussolini also made military moves without informing German forces. This did not lead to successful military campaigns by the Italians. One such campaign was the Italian attack on Greece via Albania in 1940. This attack was a total loss and the Germans had to resolve the situation with great difficulty rather than if the Germans had directed the attack from the beginning.

The ill-advised invasion of the Soviet Union resulted in the deaths of thousands of badly equipped Italian soldiers after a winter retreat. However, Mussolini’s war efforts did not gain any support from the Italian people. He had drastically exaggerated his support from the Italian people and after the Italian surrender in Africa, the collapse of Mussolini’s regime was imminent. The Italian people had wanted no part in WWII and the losses throughout the war campaign had heightened tensions further.

Fig. 3-Mussolini and Hitler in 1940

Mussolini and Hitler: Egos Collide

Hitler and Mussolini made many public appearances together, but it was an unequal balance of power. Italy acted as a junior partner in the Axis powers and Mussolini did not appreciate the marginalization. Mussolini voiced the opinion that it was crucial to not serve as an extension of German control, but as a partner in the war effort. Hitler saw Mussolini and Italian leaders as little more than consultants, not active members in planning or commanding military efforts.

Both Hitler and Mussolini ruled as dictators, which fed both of their sense of self-importance. A dictator by definition believes they are the ones who can make the best decisions and lead the people in the correct direction. These two extremely self-important men by nature could not work together; dictators are not known to combine into teams.

Fig. 4 -Benito Mussolini.

Mussolini's Death

Mussolini was not realistic about his popularity with the Italian people, both among Fascists and non-Fascists. At this point, he was more concerned with how history would remember him, not on maintaining his rule. Mussolini had attempted to flee to Austria; however, he was stopped when recognized. He had intended to blend into a convoy with retreating German troops heading for Innsbruck, Austria.

After being recognized and detained, both Mussolini and his mistress, Claretta Petacci were shot to death on April 28th, 1945. Their bodies were hung on display in the Piazza Loreto in Milan. The Italian people were finished with his dictatorship and the deaths of Mussolini and his mistress were met with celebration by the Italian people.

After Mussolini's death, Italy returned to a democratic government with the neo-Fascist party losing the 1948 elections by a large margin; the party only won 2 percent of the vote.

After Mussolini's Death

In the 1950s, the Italian government's archives were opened. the government published many reports and documents, allowing historians to really learn about Mussolini's rule. These historians have looked critically on his leadership and have developed different perspectives on it. Some historians have come to the conclusion that Mussolini improvised greatly as a leader, making up the principles of his policy along the way. Others oppose this idea and claim that he had a firm policy the whole time. Historians argue over the coherence and consistency of his policies. This means that some historians don't think Mussolini ever had a firm grasp on what his goal was for Italy.