We hear a lot about representations of certain groups in the media. But do you know how audiences interpret these representations?
The connection between media representations and audiences has served as a point of interest for sociologists and media theorists for a long time. Many concepts and arguments have been created in this area. Let us look at the most important of them.
- First, we will discuss how media representations relate to audiences.
- We will analyse the importance of media representations, as well as the various benefits of media representations on their viewers.
- Then, we will consider a few media representation and audience theories, including active audience theory, the selective filter model and cultivation theory.
- We will look at the media representation of crime and its effects on audiences.
- Lastly, we will discuss the media representation of gender and its influence on audiences.
How do media representations relate to audiences?
The media portrays different social groups in different ways. Audiences can interpret these representations in multiple ways and apply them to reality.
Media representations are the way the media presents people to the audience. Specifically, it refers to how various social groups are represented. Social groups include those from different ages, genders, ethnicities, sexualities, social classes, and disabilities.
The audience is the range of people who receive a media product.
Fig. 1 - The media represents different social groups in different ways.
The importance of representation in media
Media is a lot simpler to interpret than text. It's easier for people of different ages and educational backgrounds to understand an image rather than a piece of writing. This results in media having a more significant influence on an audience.
For this reason, it's important to look at media representations in sociology, as they can explain why we have ingrained stereotypes in society. Stereotyping is a large part of media representation.
A stereotype is a pre-conceived generalisation of a particular person or group.
Sociologists believe it is essential to examine media portrayals as they can influence our perception of different social groups. Stereotypes are often used in the media to represent these groups, but are not always accurate to reality. They often manifest as exaggerated characteristics of a particular social group, person or place.
In media products, teenagers are often represented as moody, dangerous or rude. This is rarely the case in reality, but these characteristics are exaggerated from society's view of 'typical' teenage behaviour. Sociologists find it important to distinguish stereotypes from reality.
The benefits of representation in media
It doesn't take much research to know that Western media has been historically lacking in their representation of diverse groups. For young and impressionable media consumers, being represented can be very beneficial, whether this is in their favourite television shows and movies, or even in their educational textbooks.
When handled correctly and sensitively, media representations of marginalised groups can help to reduce stereotypes surrounding these groups. A meaningful representation of a person of colour, someone with a disability or someone from the LGBTQ+ community can help demystify harmful assumptions and create a closer attachment to their experiences.
Furthermore, positive media representations can also help their consumers by increasing self-esteem and encouraging a more confident self-identity.
Active audience theory
One of the ways that media representations can change perceptions is through our interpretations of media.
Morley's (1980) audience reception theory, also known as active audience theory, is the idea that all pieces of media have intended messages for the audience. These messages are created by the makers of the media product. The audience can receive the messages in three ways:
Preferred reading: they fully understand the intent of the message.
Negotiated reading: they understand the intent, but adjust it to align with their values.
Oppositional reading: they disagree with the message.
In addition to this, Stuart Hall devised the idea of passive and active audiences.
A passive audience does not question the messages of a piece of content, whereas an active audience does question the messages.
Think of the last piece of media you consumed. What was your 'reading' of it?
The selective filter model
Continuing from this, Klapper (1960) created the selective filter model. It represents how audiences don't passively accept messages. The model aims to show that media only has an effect after it has passed through 3 filters:
- Selective exposure: the audience chooses to consume specific media dependent on their interests, education, gender etc. This results in different groups experiencing different media influences.
- Selective perception: the audience may not accept the messages in the media piece. Some audiences notice the messages, but decide to either ignore or reject them.
- Selective retention: the messages have to ‘stick’ in the audience's mind for them to have a better chance of remembering them. Messages they agree with are more likely to be retained.
Violent representations in the media
An important consequence of media representations is their influence on young audiences. In particular, violent representations in the media are studied by sociologists to see their effect on children.
Bandura et al. (1963) explored how media depiction of violence affected young audiences. He conducted a study where children were shown videos of adults attacking a self-righting doll.
In many cases, the children mimicked this behaviour when presented with the same doll. They concluded that violent media representations can lead to copycat violence.
Fig. 2 - violence in media can affect young minds. But, by how much?
Identity theory
Gauntlett (2008) explored the relationship between media consumption and audience identity. In his book Media, Gender and Identity, he stated that the media could:
... hardly fail to affect our own way of conducting ourselves and our expectations of other people’s behaviour."1
He discovered that we take different representations from the media to create our identity. For example, if we see a character using a certain phrase, we may adopt that into our vocabulary.
This can be either a conscious or subconscious decision, but we still take some of our identity from representations in the media. The heavy exposure we experience from media representations helps to build our fluid identities.
Cultivation theory
George Gerbner's cultivation theory, coined in the 1960s, suggests that prolonged exposure to media changes how we view the world and conduct ourselves.
Therefore, it can be inferred that the more we see certain representations in the media, the more we believe them. This theory reinforces mainstream ideologies and can be applied to several aspects of our media. The more media we consume, the more likely we are to interpret the representations as reality. This becomes an issue in society when the representations we see are not an accurate reflection of society.
Let's explore this by looking at representations of crime and gender within media and how audiences may interpret them.
Media representations of crime
Crime is commonly featured in media for entertainment purposes. Crime television series and documentaries are growing in popularity. However, the representations of criminal activity within media are often far removed from reality, as Ray Surette (1978) stated.
Lack of realism in media representations of crime
For instance, typical crimes that we may see in mainstream media are not so common in real life. Violent crimes such as murder are often portrayed widely in media. However, they are rare in society. The conviction of these criminals also occurs at much higher rates onscreen than it does in actuality. These fictional ideas present to the audience a warped view of reality.
Media representations of crime: the age fallacy
The criminal acts shown in mainstream media are statistically different to what we experience in society. Felson (1998) came up with the theory of 'the age fallacy' to articulate how crime victims are often portrayed as older, middle-class women. This is the most common demographic for victims of crime on TV.
However, official statistics show that this is inaccurate - those most likely to be the victims of crime are young, working-class men. This 'age fallacy' can be seen throughout various types of media.
Media representations of crime: the dramatic fallacy
In addition to 'the age fallacy,' Felson also identified the 'dramatic fallacy'. This idea relates to how criminal acts are represented in media. Extraordinary crimes like murder and rape are overplayed, whereas ordinary crimes like shoplifting are underplayed.
This 'dramatic fallacy' is constantly repeated within entertainment media because it is more engaging for audiences to, for example, watch a murder unravel than tax fraud. Although more entertaining, it's not an authentic representation of criminal activity and creates unnecessary panic.
Fig. 3 - Crime is overrepresented in media, creating moral panic and a warped view of reality.
Gender representation in the media
The media tends to represent different genders in distinct ways. Sociological theorists focus mainly on the negative aspects of gender portrayed in modern media, particularly representations of women.
Women and the male gaze
A British sociologist, Laura Mulvey (1973), introduced the 'male gaze' theory.
The male gaze theory is the idea that women in media are represented through the eyes of a heterosexual man. They are seen as objects of sexual desire, and the audience is forced to view them in this way, regardless of their sexual preferences or gender.
The male gaze can be seen throughout different forms of media, particularly in film genres with a predominantly male audience, e.g. action and sci-fi.
For instance, scenes may zoom in on a woman's curves or have her in excessively revealing clothing or positions for the setting. Once you start looking for examples of the male gaze within media, you can find a lot!
The James Bond franchise provides ample examples of the male gaze. In 'Die Another Day', the main female character is looked at through binoculars whilst in a compromising situation. For context, this is the point when the character gets introduced in the film.
Mulvey's theory refers to these sorts of scenes, as the woman is being established sexually before we know anything else about her. She is seen from the perspective of a heterosexual man; she is an object.
Lack of diversity in media representations of gender
Women are often sexualised for the male gaze in media because the media industry lacks gender diversity. It is common in many countries for women to be underrepresented in management jobs in media organisations. The perspectives of filmmakers and media CEOs inevitably influence the content of media.
So, if men hold most film and media roles, we will likely only see male views of the world, including their perceptions of women, within their work. This is how the male gaze was created.
Men and hypermasculinity in the media
Meanwhile, male characters in media products are presented as 'overly masculine'. Their key characteristics are being strong, aggressive and lacking emotion. Earp and Katz (1999) report on masculinity within media and state, suggesting that the media helps to normalise violent masculinity rather than framing violence as a deviation from masculinity.
Earp and Katz say that the increasing amount of violent male characters in media has consequences in real-life society. The norms we see on screen are accepted within society. This means that the media 'normalises' male violence and stereotypical hypermasculinity.
These gender stereotypes in media products can be seen in many well-known, culturally relevant films and genres. However, times are changing. There are many characters in the media who go against these stereotypes. They are changing the audiences' perceptions of 'ideal' masculine and feminine behaviours and ways of being. Not all mainstream media does this, but a good proportion of it does.
Can you think of any characters who don't conform to typical gender stereotypes in media?
Media Representations and Audiences - Key takeaways
- Media representations are the way that the media presents people to the audience. Specifically, it refers to how various social groups are represented.
- Klapper (1960) created the selective filter model. It represents how audiences don't passively accept messages.
- Gauntlett (2008) explored the relationship between media consumption and audience identity.
- Crime is represented as being more prevalent and dramatic in the media than in reality. The 'age fallacy' looks at how the victims of crime in media are predominantly older, middle-class women when in reality, most victims of crime are young, working-class men.
- Male gaze theory looks at how women are perceived as sexual objects in the media for the pleasure of heterosexual men. Male violence and hypermasculinity are normalised in society due to exaggerated representations of such in the media.
References
- Gauntlett, D. (2008). Media, gender and identity: An introduction. Routledge.
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