Have you ever wondered what the origins of your thoughts and feelings are? Cognitive neuroscience aims to understand the many layers of the mind through the study of the physical structure of the brain and its many processes. A fundamental assumption of cognitive neuroscience is that every mental process has a biological origin. Let's look at cognitive neuroscience, how it works, and some examples.
- First, we will delve into the world of cognitive neuroscience in psychology.
- We will discuss cognitive neuroscience experiments, providing cognitive neuroscience psychology examples throughout to illustrate our points.
- Finally, we will highlight
Cognitive Neuroscience in Psychology
Cognitive neuroscience works by analysing the brain with neural imaging techniques and comparing findings of neural imaging to behavioural data.
For example, a patient may struggle with spacial awareness, and a doctor could seek to find the root of the issue by scanning their brain for potential damage to the posterior parietal cortex.
The combination of 'hard' scientific elements (direct measurement and observation) with the 'soft' scientific aspects of psychology, such as talk therapy, has further legitimised psychology and its place as a science in the academic and scientific communities. Let's look at some of these neural imaging techniques and explore how they work.
An MRI machine allows glimpses into the inner workings of the body | Wikimedia Commons
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans
PET scans work by identifying the presence of radioactive tracers. Patients undergoing a PET scan have the tracer injected into their blood. When a quantity of blood collects in a particular area due to increased blood flow, the PET scan can detect where the blood is going.
For example, a patient recalling an episodic memory is likely to have an increase in blood flowing to their temporal and frontal lobes, which are responsible for recollecting episodic memories.
If they had trouble recalling such memories and their doctor performed a PET scan, they may find a dysfunctional amount of activity in that brain area.
The PET scan is beneficial to cognitive neuroscience as it allows instant, real-time imaging of the brain and its functions, which can be used to gain a deeper understanding of a patient's condition and the brain.
Computerised Tomography (CT) scans
CT scans work by using X-Rays to create an accurate 3D model of someone's brain. This is done by emitting X-Rays onto the brain. Unlike a PET scan, which produces a real-time brain activity image, CT scans produce a detailed snapshot of the brain's structure.
This is useful for detecting injury to the brain or other forms of damage.
The CT scan is helpful in cognitive neuroscience because it allows doctors and researchers to observe the brain's physical condition directly. This can be useful for treating a patient with specific brain trauma or understanding and comparing different brains. CT scans are not typically performed on children and pregnant people, as they require X-rays, which are high-energy waves of radiation that come with risk.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) scans
MRI scans show a real-time brain image by using a combination of radio waves and magnetic fields that affect hydrogen nuclei in the body (protons).
fMRI is a similar scan, but instead of simply creating an image, it allows the brain's activity to be observed by scanning metabolic function. During fMRI scans, patients are often given prompts ranging from questions and orders to visual stimuli. The activity in the brain is then observed, as different activities and prompts will elicit activity in the various parts of the brain.
- Much like the PET scan, the fMRI scan allows real-time brain activity observation, but unlike the PET scan, no exposure to radiation is required. This is a significant advantage for the fMRI, as it is healthier for the patient and allows numerous brain scans instead of just one.
- In practice, even though the PET scan produces clearer images than fMRI, the ability for fMRI to be repeated results in clearer images of the brain.
Cognitive Neuroscience Psychology Example
As an elementary explanation, cognitive neuroscience means that the brain's underlying structures and processes determine how we act and think. Let's look at some real-world examples of cognitive neuroscience, starting with the case of Phineas Gage.
Cognitive Neuroscience Experiments: Phineas Gage
Phineas Gage was a man who worked on railroad construction in the 19th century in America. As part of his job, Gage had to create holes in the ground using dynamite to build a foundation for new train tracks. Part of this process was packing the explosives with a metal rod. Still, unfortunately for Phineas, the explosives were triggered by this action, and the metal rod was sent through his skull at high speed, completely entering and exiting the left side of his brain.
Miraculously, Phineas survived this event, despite serious injuries, bleeding and damage to his brain. However, he was soon considered well enough to start working again.
Despite his physical condition improving, Gage was profoundly psychologically changed by the incident. Gage changed from a man observed to be polite and hardworking to an indecisive, aggressive and rude man. This change was so marked that Harlow, the doctor working with him then, noted that friends and family considered him 'No longer Gage'.
A metal rod was sent through Phineas Gage's frontal lobe І Wikimedia commons
While an interesting story about a man surviving a seemingly unsurvivable event, Gage's story also illustrates a very basic idea of what we currently understand to be cognitive neuroscience.
The physical damage he suffered to his brain transformed his personality entirely:
- Harlow explicitly suggested that the injury was the underlying cause of his radical personality shift.
While in Gage's day, the methods by which the brain could be understood and observed were very limited, we've gained a more scientific understanding of what happened through modern imaging techniques.
Ratiu et al. (2004) used a combination of Gage's skull, Harlow's detailed recordings, and CAT scans to determine exactly how the rod would have damaged his brain. They found that there would have been massive damage to his left frontal lobe.
Our current knowledge of the functions of the left frontal lobe, combined with the testimony of how Gage changed, matches the findings of Ratiu et al (2004).
Van Horn et al. (2012) compared Gage's skull with information gained from male participants in their late twenties to early thirties and found similar results as Ratiu et al. (2004), establishing how the damage was not localised just to the frontal lobe, and how the impact can affect nearby systems which could explain the behavioural changes people observed of Gage.
Sadly, while Gage did die twelve years after the incident, Harlow was able to provide his skull to researchers, allowing Gage's misfortune to assist psychologists.
Tulving's gold memory study
Another example of cognitive neuroscience research is Tulving's 'gold' memory study. This case study aimed to find a link between different types of memories and respective activity in the brain.
Method
Six participants were instructed to sit or lie on a sofa, close their eyes and imagine a memory on any topic they wish. After a minute of this, Tulving had the participants injected with a tracer - a radioactive gold isotope that would be highlighted by a PET scan, which intended to show Tulving which areas of the brain were most active during the imagining of different memories.
Participants did this eight times.
Findings
While three participants were not included due to their inconsistent results, the other three demonstrated a marked difference in blood flow, which would demonstrate differing brain activity.
The study showed that when semantic memories were thought of (i.e, memories concerned with meaning) the cerebral cortex's parietal and occipital lobes were highlighted, but when episodic memories were thought of (i.e, memories concerned with events) the temporal and frontal lobes were highlighted.
Conclusion
Tulving concluded that based on his findings and observations, different types of memories prompted more activity in differing brain areas.
Tulving is an important study in cognitive neuroscience, as it maps specific areas of function based on neuroimaging techniques, and relates it to human behaviour and cognition.
Practical Application of Cognitive Neuroscience: Neurological Damage
Neurological damage and the diagnosis and treatment of said damage are examples of the practical applications of cognitive neuroscience.
Neurological damage is any damage that occurs to the brain and nervous system, which can impact cognition and behaviour.
Examples of neurological damage include:
- Strokes affecting particular areas of the brain, disrupting the function
- Visual agnosia, where a patient is unable to make sense of visual information they are perceiving
- Prosopagnosia, where a patient is unable to recognise faces despite being able to perceive them visually
- Prefrontal cortex damage, associated with impulse control and personality expression
Cognitive neuroscience, through the methods detailed above, can identify areas of possible neurological damage and assess the best way to treat the areas of damage, all whilst monitoring the progression of the injury and disease and the effects of the treatment plans.
Cognitive Neuroscience - Key takeaways
- Cognitive neuroscience works by analysing the brain with neural imaging techniques and comparing findings of neural imaging to behavioural data.
- The combination of 'hard' scientific elements (direct measurement and observation) with the 'soft' scientific aspects of psychology, such as talk therapy, has further legitimised psychology and its place as a science in the academic and scientific communities.
- CT scans, PET scans, MRI and fMRI scans are all neuroimaging techniques used in cognitive neuroscience.
- Phineas Gage is an excellent example of cognitive neuroscience investigating a case of neurological damage affecting cognition. Tulving's Gold study highlights how cognitive neuroscience can associate brain activity with cognition and behaviour.
- Neurological damage in cognitive neuroscience includes strokes, visual agnosia, prosopagnosia, and prefrontal cortex damage.
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