Psychology has come a long way, from believing that mental health was a result of witchcraft and the devil's work to more reasonable factors such as biology, our environment, childhood experiences and the interactions we have with others. The advancement has been possible due to the increased availability of new and modern technology and tools that can be used to investigate human behaviour.
- We will focus on learning how studying the brain in psychology is done.
- With a focus on helping you learn about the methods and tools used for studying brain anatomy.
- We have provided an example of how studying the brain behaviour of a serial killer may be investigated in psychology.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a neuroimaging tool that has aided in advancing psychological research, freepik.com/pch.vector.
Studying the Brain: Behaviour
The consensus amongst the majority of psychologists is that the discipline should aim to be empirical, valid and reliable; these are the core features of scientific research. A hypothesis needs to be proposed for research to be established as scientific. The hypotheses in research should be supported or refuted by evidence; this is where behavioural tests and neuroimaging tools come in.
Neuroimaging tools are advanced technological equipment used to measure activity and dysfunction in the brain, whereas behavioural tests measure how well someone can carry out specific functions.
For example, the Mini-Mental Status Examination is a memory test that measures short-term memory, attention, visual-spatial and orientation skills.
The standard procedure in neuropsychology nowadays is to use neuroimaging tools to measure dysfunction in specific brain regions and identify if it is related to poor or improved skills in behavioural tests.
Studying the Brain: Anatomy
Previously, the only way to investigate the brain was via observation and experimentation, and the brain could only be examined post-mortem or using invasive techniques such as lobotomies.
Lobotomies involve removing parts of the brain suspected of causing mental illness symptoms. The surgery has been associated with severe side effects and high mortality risk. For this reason, this form of psychosurgery is not commonly used.
Since then, technology has advanced, and new, less invasive tools can be used to measure brain activity and study brain anatomy.
Some of the standard neuroimaging techniques used today include:
- MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) - takes an image of the brain using magnetic and radiofrequency waves. There are different types of MRIs; structural MRIs are used to take images of the brain anatomy.
- fMRI (functional MRI) - is similar to an MRI in that it takes an image of the brain, but the machine can also detect blood and oxygen changes in the brain that occur when performing an activity, such as a recall test. The changes allow researchers to observe activity in specific brain regions and infer function based on this.
- MEG (magnetoencephalography) - is used to measure brain activity by measuring changes in the magnetic field in the brain. The brain has a magnetic field, and changes occur during brain activity which MEGs can detect.
- EEG (electroencephalography) - places electrodes on the scalp to measure electrical activity in the brain. Neurotransmitters in active brain regions tend to be in an excitatory state on neurons; this increases the positive charge of a neuron that allows EEGs to detect.
Various neuroimaging techniques are used to measure the structure and function of the brain, freepik.com/macrovector
Studying the brain of a serial killer
Can a serial killer be considered sane? The ability to kill not only one but multiple people is something the majority of the population cannot do. That being said, there are serial killers notorious in history and those who still exist in society. Can studying the brain of a serial killer help us understand why and how they can do what they do/ did.
Allely et al. (2014) found in their review that the interaction between biological, psychological and sociological factors contributes to serial killers, especially when there were incidents of neurodevelopmental injuries or disorders such as head injury or autism spectrum disorder, although it's important to note that many of the studies they reviewed were speculative in nature.
It is difficult to get consent and availability of serial killers to conduct neuroimaging studies. But, neuroimaging studies have been done on psychopaths, a common trait in serial killers, which have revealed differences in the structure and function of the brain.
When reading published work, remember not everything should be taken literally. From this research, we should not believe there is an association between autism and serial killers.
Studying the brain methods
As previously discussed, advancing tools and behavioural tests have increased our knowledge of human cognition and behaviour. Let's look at some research highlighting advancements that have increased our learning.
Early research
Towards the beginning of the origins of psychology, mental health was investigated using Phrenology. In the 18th century, Gall proposed that mental health and traits could be measured by identifying which part of the skull had bumps. You may think that sounds ridiculous, but it was a significant advancement in psychology.
Gall's theory acknowledged that different brain regions are responsible for different functions, now known as localisation.
Remember, mental health was previously thought of as witchcraft.
Early philosophers such as Plato and Descartes came up with dualistic theories of the brain. The dualistic views proposed that the self has two parts: the mental and the physical. These theories mark the origins of neuropsychology!
Case studies on patients such as Phineas Gage (Harlow, 1848) and patient H.M. (Scoville & Milner, 1957) have allowed researchers to identify specific brain regions and their associated functions. Gage had an accident where a metal rod went through his skull and permanently damaged his frontal lobe. Based on observations, it was found that the accident caused personality changes and affected his ability to inhibit impulse-driven behaviour.
Batteries of behavioural tests assessing various skills, such as memory, showed that H.M. could no longer form new memories. Still, he could recall old and procedural memories after removing his medial temporal lobe. Patient H.M. is famous in neuropsychology as his case led to the acknowledgement that multiple regions are responsible for memory rather than a single one.
Behavioural tests are commonly used to date. However, more tests are available, and these tests are tested more vigorously for reliability and validity than previously done.
Contemporary research
From earlier psychological research, there was a shift in focus from proving facts and theories about human behaviour to carrying out scientific research. In principle, scientific research can only provide supporting or negative evidence and cannot suggest with 100% certainty that a theory is true or false.
This is known as Popper's hypothetico-deductive method.
In addition, psychologists now emphasise the importance of reliable and valid research; this has led to the increased popularity of using the experimental approach in psychological research.
A common experimental research design is utilising neuroimaging techniques to map the brain or record brain activity and asking participants to complete behavioural tests and compare the results between, for instance, people who have specific mental health issues and those who do not.
Additionally, the advancement and increased availability of neuroimaging techniques has allowed researchers to identify evidence:
- brain networks that work together to execute a function
- how the brain works
- how changes in the brain can contribute to mental illness.
Wang et al. (2011) used a functional MRI to measure the brain activity of patients with Alzheimer's disease (A.D.), Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and healthy controls. The study's results revealed that A.D. and MCI patients had significantly lower activity in the medial parietal lobe but increased activity in the lateral temporal brain region. These changes were significantly correlated with memory test scores.
The Wang et al. research is useful in advancing psychology as it could potentially highlight biomarkers that could be used to diagnose people with MCI or A.D. after the findings have been tested vigorously.
Studying the Brain - Key takeaways
- Psychology has come a long way, from believing that mental health was a result of witchcraft to more reasonable factors such as biology, our environment, childhood experiences and the interactions we have with others etc.
- Earlier research relied heavily on observations and more invasive techniques, such as lobotomies.
- New neuroimaging tools have been developed for studying brain anatomy and function, such as MRIs, fMRIs, MEGs and EEGs.
- With the advancement of tools that can be used for studying brain behaviour, researchers have been able to identify brain networks that work together to execute a function, how the brain works and how changes in the brain can contribute to mental illness.
References
- Harlow, J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head. The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal.
- Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.
- Wang, Z., Yan, C... & Li, K. (2011). Spatial patterns of intrinsic brain activity in mild cognitive impairment and alzheimer's disease: A resting-state functional MRI study. Human Brain Mapping.
- Allely, C. S., Minnis, H... Gillberg, C. (2014). Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial risk factors in serial killers and mass murderers. Aggression and Violent Behavior.
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