The patchwork of different identities and cultures is what makes the world such an interesting place. But not everybody actively links their identity with their ethnic background.
Sociologists have researched how ethnicity plays a role in the identity formation of individuals and groups. We will discuss the interpretation of ethnic identity from a sociological perspective.
- We will look at ethnic identity in sociology and consider examples of ethnic identity.
- We will move on to the link between ethnic identity and difference, including an explanation of defensive and positive ethnic boundaries.
- Finally, we will look at how the importance of ethnic identity changed over time. We will mention the ethnic identity crisis, present in contemporary society.
Ethnic identity in sociology
It might be helpful to first break down the term 'identity'.
Identity
Identity is the specific character and personality of an individual.
We can understand our identity in relation to those of other people - whether we're similar or different to them, and in what ways. Sociologists see identity as being made up of three dimensions.
Ethnicity is an example of social identity.
Our social identity is characterised by our membership in certain social groups. Either we can be born as members of particular groups, or we can choose to become members through certain social activities, such as playing sports.
Ethnic identity examples
Ethnic identity refers to a commitment to particular ethnic groups. It's important to note that different people show different levels and ways of committing to their ethnic group.
Their commitment to an ethnic group can change over time, in different internal and external contexts. In this sense, ethnic identities are negotiable.
An ethnic group is a group with distinctive norms and cultures, based on a shared origin.
The various aspects that form an ethnic identity include (but are not limited to):
- cultural traditions and customs
- religious beliefs and traditions
- shared geographic location
- shared histories
Like many other nations, the UK is a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities. Let's take a look at some examples of non-white ethnic identities found in the UK.
African-Caribbean identities
Sociologists report that the Blackness of African-Caribbean individuals tends to be a significant aspect of their ethnic identity, especially whilst living in a country where racism is still entrenched.
While there are common aspects across Black identities, many distinguishing features make them unique from one another. This includes styles of dress, music, and dialects.
Paul Gilroy (1987) identifies the trailblazing contributions of Black people to mainstream British culture, which includes popular dances, music, and fashion. He notes that ethnic minorities, such as Black people, often use art or deviant activity as a form of resistance to oppressive White rule.
Asian identities
The term 'Asian' is broadly used and can often cause incorrect generalisations when referring to a large and diverse cohort. In the UK, there is a large population of people with Pakistani, Indian, and Bangladeshi backgrounds.
There is also a lot of diversity within each of these groups, pertaining to different religious denominations and the behavioural guidelines that they set. An example of a cultural standard among these groups is having close relationships with extended family members.
Ethnicity does not function in isolation, so it's important to take a multi-faceted approach when thinking about social identity. Different types of identities interact to create unique lived experiences for individuals.
For example, the experience of an upper-class Black man is likely to be very different to that of a lower-class white woman.
Ethnic identity and difference
Fig. 1 - Many socio-political movements have stemmed from identity politics surrounding ethnicity
Angela Byers-Winston (2005) argued that people develop ethnic identities when they see themselves as being different from others. So, just like other markers of identity like age or social class, it can be said that ethnicity is often used as a marker of difference.
Furthermore, in his influential essay on cultural identity, Stuart Hall (1996) pointed out that our ethnic identity is sourced from the cultural, economic and political contexts where we have lived in the past and presently.
However, he was careful to point out that ethnic identity is less a process of 'being', and more a process of 'becoming'. It is subject to constant transformation as culture and power dynamics shift in the world around us.
The ways in which sociologists make sense of struggles and conflicts about identity are called identity politics.
There are many different groups whose identity is marked by differences in society, particularly ethnic minorities (other examples include wheelchair users or transgender people).
They are subject to maltreatment and discrimination from powerful groups who see and treat them as inferior. In the case of ethnicity, this discrimination is referred to as racism.
Defensive ethnic boundaries
Discrimination against ethnic minorities can be cultural (operating at the individual level) and/or systemic (entrenched in society's systems, such as education and healthcare).
These can reinforce negative stereotypes, and perpetuate the ethnic boundaries which subject ethnic minorities to being identified as the other by dominant groups.
It has long been the case that Black Americans find it much more difficult to find work than White people. In November 2021, Black people faced almost double the rate of unemployment as compared to White people - at 6.7%, versus 3.5%.
Another salient example is police brutality and the disproportionate targeting of Black people by law enforcement.
Positive ethnic boundaries
However, not all ethnic boundaries are negative. The factors that form an ethnic identity allow its members to establish their distinguishing features from other groups, creating a sense of solidarity, belonging, and connection within their own definable cultural group.
This is done through customs and celebrations, like festivals and religious gatherings, as well as through particular cultural artefacts, like a style of dress.
In sum, ethnic boundaries can be:
- defensive or negative, in the sense of fighting discrimination or using ethnicity to mark people as 'different' in an oppressive way, or
- positive, in the sense of creating a defined cultural group to which one feels a sense of belonging.
Importance of ethnic identity: changes in contemporary society
Some sociologists theorise that ethnic boundaries will gradually fade in the UK.
Second or third-generation migrants will adopt the mainstream British culture instead. While this has been the case to a limited extent (for example, many Sikh youths no longer wear a turban), many minority ethnic cultures persist today.
Let's take a look at how ethnic identity has changed in contemporary British society.
Hybrid identities
Several examples demonstrate a lack of opposition to ethnic boundaries; instead, they signal the fact that people often feel a sense of belonging to more than just one ethnic group. There are two kinds of hybrid ethnic identities.
Conventional hybridisation
Conventional hybridisation involves mixing features from various ethnicities to create new, unique identities.
For example, Chinese, Indian, and Italian cuisine have been taken up and adapted by the British by introducing subtle changes in flavour. Chicken tikka masala is widely considered Britain's 'national dish'!
Fig. 2 - Chicken tikka masala is an example of conventional hybridisation.
Contemporary hybridisation
Contemporary hybridisation involves the constant changing and evolution of ethnic identities as a result of widespread migration and cultural globalisation practices.
For example, the internet allows us to be exposed to many different cultural influences that we may choose to adopt.
It is important to note that contemporary hybrid identities are not entirely new, but rather involve tweaks and alterations of identities that already exist. The creation of new identities is unique to conventional hybridisation.
Changes in Black identities
Tariq Modood et al. (1994) conducted a longitudinal study to investigate cultural changes among African-Caribbeans living in Birmingham.
While many aspects of Caribbean culture were pervasive, there were notable differences between generations. For example, the role of religion in culture was significantly smaller among younger generations.
Furthermore, Black youth were more inclined to use Patois (a Caribbean dialect) as a way to actively assert their ethnic identity in opposition to others.
Changes in Asian identities
Upon surveying a large cohort of Muslims living in Britain, Munira Mirza et al. (2007) found that most of them were well integrated into British culture.
This was indicated by a general preference for mixed state schools and British law (as opposed to Sharia law), as well as engagement in secular activities such as drinking.
However, younger Muslims were less likely to report a preference for British culture than their parents - and they were generally more religious than older respondents in the study.
This is a surprising finding, as it demonstrates that youth who grew up integrated into British culture and society are generally more aware of their difference than their parents are.
Ethnic identity crisis
Erik Erikson identified the identity crisis as a significant psychological event that many people go through. During an identity crisis, people start to question their sense of self. This is particularly common with ethnic identities in an increasingly globalised world, where cultures are more commonly assimilated with one another.
This event signals the fluidity and negotiability of ethnic identity, which is a key factor to consider when studying one's level of commitment and belonging to certain ethnic groups.
Ethnic Identity - Key takeaways
- The inner self, social identity, and personal identity all constitute a person's overall identity or sense of self. Ethnicity is a type of social identity, which is marked by a commitment or belonging to certain social groups.
- The distinguishing features of ethnic groups primarily relate to cultural customs, religious customs, shared geographical location, and shared histories.
- Ethnic identity is often used as a marker of difference - the basis for discriminatory practices such as police brutality or unethical employment practices.
- Ethnic boundaries can be positive, in the sense of creating a definable group culture that promotes a sense of belonging, or negative, in the sense of them being used as the basis for discriminatory practices.
- Ethnic identities are constantly changing as people navigate new ways of being in contemporary society. Hybrid identities appear in two main forms - the mixing of features from different ethnicities (conventional hybridisation) and the changing of existing identities in response to exposure to a range of different cultures (contemporary hybridisation).
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