If you were asked what makes up your identity, what would you say? This can be a hard question to answer, and our answer can often change as we grow up.
In this explanation, we will explore socialisation and identity. We will be looking at:
- Socialisation, identity, and how we are socialised
- Socialisation, identity and methods of research
- Effects of socialisation on human behaviour
- Sociological views on socialisation and the creation of social identity
- The relationship between socialisation, identity and culture
First things first, let's clarify the definitions of identity and socialisation.
Identity is a sense of self. It's often a culmination of a person's age, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and class. These aspects come together to form one's identity.
Socialisation is a process that begins from the very start of our lives. It's the way that we are taught to behave to fit into society. Identity comes primarily from socialisation with others, and so sociologists find it important to look at the link between identity and socialisation.
Now, let's dive into socialisation and how it shapes our identities.
How are we socialised?
Socialisation occurs from birth. There are two sociological identifications of socialisation.
Formal socialisation
Formal socialisation refers to where people are purposely conditioned into obeying certain rules.
The way that schools teach children to obey authority figures is a form of formal socialisation, as it teaches children the importance of hierarchy and discipline.
You can also be formally socialised in the family and religious spheres, for example, when you are taught to carry out and avoid certain things.
Informal socialisation
Informal socialisation is where people learn to fit into their society and culture by observing and learning from others. They discover their place in society and how to behave in it.
This could occur when one moves from one culture to another and learns the new norms and values.
Socialisation, identity and methods of research
When sociologists attempt to understand socialisation, identity, and methods of research, they must be aware of the implications their studies may have.
Identity is an aspect of human life that can be easily influenced through socialisation. Both formal and informal socialisation can change our identity from a young age; this can be positive and negative.
When it comes down to methods of research, sociologists encounter many ethical issues in studying socialisation and identity. Due to this, there are limited practical studies but plenty of theoretical work.
To explore 'Methods of Research' further, please look at our 'Theories and Methods' subset!
Effects of socialisation on human behaviour
Socialisation is important for humans to understand how society works and how we should interact with eachother. In different cultures, we are socialised into different beliefs which make us fit into that society. There are two main types of socialisation that were first identified by sociologist Talcott Parsons. These types of socialisation have different effects on our behaviour as growing humans.
Primary socialisation and behaviour
Primary socialisation is what a child learns from their immediate family. They take on the same values and beliefs as the family as well as learn what the parents expect of the child. This differs from family to family and helps children to gain a sense of identity.
Socialisation has a direct correlation to identity, and therefore influence at a young age is important in creating a sense of self.
Fig. 1 - Primary socialisation occurs in the immediate family.
Secondary socialisation and behaviour
Secondary socialisation is when a child learns what the wider society expects of them. It often occurs outside the home and can be put down to the following 'agents of socialisation':
The family
Peer groups
Mass media
Religion
Education
The workplace
You can explore these agents of socialisation further in our 'Socialisation' article.
Socialisation and the creation of social identity
Our identity often varies based on our social situation as we consider the views of those around us. We often form our identity through two different stages. Let's look at the concepts of primary and secondary identity.
Primary identity refers to our sense of self, whereas secondary identity refers to our role in society.
We will consider the social construction of identity through structuralist and social action views.
Structuralist views on socialisation and identity
Structuralist views include functionalism, feminism, and Marxism. We will consider how each view sees the construction and development of identity.
Functionalism on identity
Functionalists believe that identity is formed from learning your role in society. By conducting this role, you learn how to function within society and gain an identity at the same time.
Talcott Parsons highlighted the concepts of primary and secondary socialisation; he viewed identity as developing from these initial socialisations and continuing as we enter social situations throughout our lives.
Feminism and identity
Feminists believe that identity and self are constructed by gender roles, which are created and perpetuated by patriarchy.
Ann Oakley saw the construction of identity as stemming from patriarchal views. She saw that socialisation into our society enforced negative gender roles through unconscious stereotypes.
Expectations are often created for children to look up to their parents of the same sex. Due to this, children form their identity from the activities and behaviour associated with the expectations of that gender.
For example, if girls are taught to be like their mothers, they are likely to start adopting that identity; from a young age, they may start to participate in chores. They believe that this is part of their identity as a girl or woman.
Parents set expectations for their children based on their gender, either consciously or unconsciously. Boys may become better at sports because the parent puts more time into it with them, under the expectation they will achieve well due to their gender.
Parents may punish children based on their own norms and values. For example, if a boy is acting stereotypically effeminate, he may be told off by his parents. The child learns that this is 'bad' behaviour and interprets it into their social norms.
Marxism and identity
Marxists such as Eli Zaretsky view socialisation in the family as a tool of capitalism. He argues that the family acts as a psychological function, and we are nurtured into it. The children are socialised to obey society and therefore the commands of the bourgeoisie. Children are aware of this hierarchy and their place in society.
By socialising into these roles at a young age, there is even less hope of an eventual uprising and overthrow of the bourgeoisie. Our identity further perpetuates this societal divide as we take on our proletariat role unquestionably.
Social action views on socialisation and identity
Social action views include interactionism and postmodernism.
Interactionism on identity
According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, George Mead held the view that:
identity is dependent upon the recognition of others."
Furthering from this, he suggested the main parts of our identity can be seen as an inner core because they are so ingrained and integral to our being. We can relate this inner core to the idea of our master status. A master status is the social position we describe ourselves with the most, which influences our behaviours and social identity.
You may immediately describe yourself as a straight woman before you establish other aspects of your identity to someone. This is your master status, as it is a status which has the most social importance to you.
Goffman developed his idea of dramaturgy. He suggested that everybody is an actor and society is our stage. Socialisation is how we learn to play our assigned roles. He distinguished between two concepts within this theory; the front stage and the backstage.
The front stage is any place where we interact and act in front of others. In contrast, the backstage consists of the private moments we get to ourselves when we prepare for our return to the front stage.
Becker introduced labelling theory. He explored how our identity and behaviours can be taken from the way others describe and class us. Our identity is influenced by how others perceive us.
If someone classes you as a 'feminine' you may be more likely to take this on board for your identity. This often stems from perceived stereotypes that we act upon when labelled.
Cooley (1902) coined the term 'looking glass self'. This process explored how we develop our self-identity by understanding how others perceive us.
Postmodernism on identity
Postmodernist Lyotard explored the idea of metanarrative. A metanarrative refers to a broad, overarching ideology that is 'universally true'. For example, aspects of religion and science are metanarratives: the process of evolution, how God built the Earth in seven days, etc. We don't question these metanarratives but instead take them on board as fact.
Metanarratives commonly shape our identity as they can be a big part of our lives that goes unquestioned. We may base our identity on aspects of metanarratives that we learn at a young age as fact.
Lyotard rejects metanarratives, instead offering the view that society is changing so fast that it can't be explained by them. We are encouraged by modern society to question perceived facts such as religious or scientific explanations. This dispels the effects of metanarrative influence over our identity.
Fig. 2 - Goffman's dramaturgy theory explores the idea of society as a stage.
The relationship between socialisation, identity and culture
We will explore how our identity relates to social factors and surrounding culture. There are 7 main social factors which shape our identity: age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality, and social class. These can also be known as the characteristics of our identity. Let's explore them further.
Age and identity
Bradley explored the significance of age and found that it was a significant factor in a person's identity. It was a factor which bonded people together with those of the same age.
Age shapes our identity for many reasons. In particular, trends can be used to create our identity and these vary greatly depending on age.
Someone raised in the 1980s will follow different trends and have different ideas and perspectives from those raised in the 2000s.
We are more likely to approach and talk to those in our age group in social situations, such as family gatherings or social events.
Through this, we can share identity and relate to each other. This is a simple but effective means of shaping our identity from age.
Gender socialisation and identity theory
Gender comes with a multitude of social expectations. Parents often wish to know the gender of their child to adjust clothes colours or buy toys based on gender. This reinforces gender roles from birth, even though newborn babies have very few physical differences or behaviours.
Ann Oakley believed that children learned the expectations for their gender from primary socialisation. Let's look at the two facets of her gender socialisation and identity theory below.
Canalisation and identity
Oakley coined this term regarding how boys and girls are channelled into particular activities. The activities are determined by their gender. For example, girls are pushed into trying ballet whilst boys attempt football. This isn't due to the choice of the child but rather due to the influence of the parents.
Nicknames and identity
Children are often labelled differently by adults due to their gender. Boys are referred to as 'mate' or 'little monster', whereas girls are called 'sweetheart' or 'princess'. These terms solidify gender roles in the minds of children; they feel like they must conform to them.
In addition, children's clothing has slogans such as these on them, which further ingrains the identity. It physically labels the child in a certain way.
McRobbie concentrated her research on gender roles in the media, in particular in magazines. She found that men are represented as strong and women as weak. These repeated stereotypes influence our identity as both men and women, reinforcing gender roles by what we see in the media.
Disability and identity
Barnes (1992) stated that the media has led us to believe many myths about disabled people. For example, that they are pitied by society, entirely dependent on others, do not have sex lives, or cannot care for themselves. The media rarely presents disabilities as a social norm, instead displaying them as a burden.
The media stereotypes of disabled people lack diversity. Those who are disabled don't always hold their disability as a huge part of their identity. Disabilities vary widely, with some taking this into their identity and some not.
Goffman suggested that disabled people have a 'spoiled' identity, due to people's perception resting on their disability rather than who they are as a person. Others often focus on their disability as the deciding factor of their identity above anything else. Those who are disabled often take their disability on board with their identity, yet this is not their main focus. This shapes disabled identities as they may feel more discrimination or pity in society.
Ethnicity and identity
Ethnic groups often share a sense of history, traditions, languages, and beliefs. These differences are usually learned in childhood through primary socialisation, as ethnicity commonly stems from family.
Hall stated that new identities are created, whilst ethnic identities are more difficult to experience due to globalisation.
Language is a key indicator of ethnic identity. Many British households raise children in their native language, as well as English, as this helps to create a strong identity from childhood.
Fig. 3 - Ethnic Identity is often taught by the family.
Modood (2005) noted that besides language, there are often also traditions that help reinforce ethnicity, including dress, food, and religion.
Gilroy (2002) researched African identities and stated that there was no singular black identity or community. Instead, the experience of slavery affected perceptions of Black people, which united the different communities.
Class and identity
Our social class builds our identity as it often determines the area we grow up in, what we have access to, and how we spend our leisure time.
Bourdieu identified cultural capital. He suggested that the upper class determines what is seen as 'good taste' in society, such as going to museums, the opera, etc. This is known as high class. Those in the lower classes can't truly experience this and find leisure in other activities. This attributes to our identity as it determines what we experience and interpret in the world.
Bradley saw that the media we are saturated with allows us to pick and mix whatever identities we see fit, regardless of class. This represents a step forward in class identity as we are no longer as restrained to cultural capital, as suggested by Bourdieu.
Durkheim said that those who don't work can have feelings of normlessness and uncertainty as they lack the norms of an everyday routine. They struggle to fulfil their identity as they cannot take it from their workplace. It's important to consider this from the perspective of someone unemployed.
Nationality and identity
National identity refers to the feeling of being part of a large community in a nation. It creates a sense of belonging for individuals. Nationalism can commonly be experienced when a large event occurs such as the World Cup. People unite over their national identity.
Fig. 4 - National identity evokes pride in communities.
Hall explored the idea of national identity and found that every nation had its unique collection of symbols, stories, and images, e.g. anthems, flags, and festivals. These identified the shared experiences and helped people express their national identity. He also highlighted the increase in cultural hybridity.
Sexuality and identity
Sexuality is seen as a social construct. We establish sexual norms from culture. In Ancient Greece, homosexuality was seen as normal, yet many cultures condemned it. This is known as heteronormativity - the expectation of heterosexuality to be natural to all.
Some forms of sexuality carry a great stigma. However, those who have 'come out' now have a wider range of identities to associate with, e.g. macho, butch, effeminate, etc.
Socialisation and Identity - Key Takeaways
- Identity and socialisation are intertwined. Identity is a sense of self. Socialisation begins at the start of our lives, and it is a process which determines our identity.
- The social construction of identity and self involves looking at structuralist views and social action views.
- Structuralist views include functionalism, feminism, and Marxism. As an example of a structuralist view, Oakley believed that children learned the expectations for their gender from primary socialisation.
- Social action views include interactionism and postmodernism.
- Identities have relations with social factors such as age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality, and social class.
References
- B. Turner. (2006). The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. https://cdchester.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Bryan-S.-Turner-The-Cambridge-Dictionary-of-Sociology-Cambridge-University-Press-2006.pdf
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