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When someone asks you to describe yourself as a person, do you start with your national identity? Ethnic identity? Gender identity, or even your hobbies?
Identity is the concept of who we believe ourselves to be. It is personal (how you see yourself) and social (how others see you).
The way individuals view and study themselves and others is an interesting field of research for sociologists. We will discuss the major sociological theories on social identity.
- We will start with the meaning of social identity.
- Then we will look at social identity theory and social identity examples.
- We will continue by looking at factors that shape identity.
- We will include the connections between gender, age, social class, ethnicity, nationality, disability and identity.
- Finally, we will look at sociological theories on social identity.
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Meaning of social identity
Social identity is defined as the product of all the experiences an individual goes through during social interactions to develop a sense of who they believe themselves to be.
Sociologists consider the concept of identity as a social construction - an individual or collective representation of social categories (religion, class, gender, and so forth).
Theorists like Henri Tajfel and John Turner proposed the social identity theory, an interplay between personal and social groups (social class, family, sports team, etc.).
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Social identity theory
The theory studies how individuals create and define their identity through (social) group membership. The process involves three stages: categorisation, identification, and comparison.
In the first stage, the individual is assigned to a social group (for example, students). In the second stage, the individual adopts the identity and conforms to the norms of that group. This gives the individual a sense of belonging. In the final stage, the individual identifies with one's own group and compares it to other groups.
These result in the categorisation of an in-group - where an individual feels identified as a member of the group; and an out-group, the group where the individual doesn't belong. Members of the in-group view their group with a positive bias and look out for negative aspects of the out-group.
Social identity examples
In all societies, individual and group identities are built around categories.
- Social - class, gender, ethnicity, etc.
- Biological - age, sex, etc.
- Physical - region/location, occupation, etc.
The categories above are associated with a set of social characteristics that broadly define them, and can be further linked with social expectations.
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Apart from the biological aspect, age develops a social character. Society offers a cultural grouping based on age (childhood, youth, adolescence, and old age), and expectations are built from people belonging to these groups. That is why a child is expected to behave differently than an adult.
Identity: achieved and ascribed
An individual's identity is a social construction made up of key aspects like social class, ethnicity, sex, age, gender, religious beliefs, and so forth. These aspects can be clubbed under two categories:
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- Ascribed identity - Aspects of identity given by society such as social class, ethnicity, nationality, gender, etc.
- Achieved identity - The aspects of identity that are chosen or achieved by the individual like social status, religious belief, family role, relationship status, etc.
Theorists argue that identities are dynamic and can be negotiated or redefined.
Consider an individual's nationality. It becomes very relevant at particular times, when supporting your team in sports, or your country in times of conflict.
Fig. 1 - Being British is part of one's ascribed identity.
Factors that shape identity
Erving Goffman illustrates his idea about identity by describing how individuals adopt roles and use techniques to create an impression. He uses the term dramaturgy, an idea that the social world is a play in which all individuals are actors.
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- Goffman believed that people learn to enact roles in the process of socialisation. People have a series of encounters during social interaction, which defines the situation for the actors. Once faced, an individual plays the role, representing themselves in a way that tries to manipulate others' impression of them. Goffman defined this expression as impression management. In turn, the others also try to manage the individual's impression of them during the interaction.
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- This theory explains the relationship between individuals (actors), their ability to behave expectedly (play the role), and the society in which they live (stage).
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In a classroom, certain individuals play the role of students. One conforms to the rules or norms associated with this role, as they already learn about it during the process of (secondary) socialisation.
G.H. Mead's concept of identity can be considered a social psychological perspective. His theory of identity formation (self) relies upon a complex interplay between 'I' (the unsocialised, impulsive self) and 'me' (the socialised self).
- According to Mead, in the process of development, a child slips into the process of role-taking. At first, the child plays the roles (imitates) of significant others during the play stage. Then, in the game stage, the child takes up the role of generalised others, considering their expectations and judgments towards the role.
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- Broadly speaking, Mead's analysis explains how an individual develops social identity through the process of role-taking, initially by adjusting to the perspectives of significant others, and later the generalised others.
Let's take a brief look at the other aspects around which individual and group identities are built.
Social construction of gender identity
While some experts argue that gender is determined biologically, theorists argue that it is a social construction.
Sex refers to the biological characteristic of the individual (male, female, various combinations of male and female sexual organs). Gender refers to the cultural differences associated with sexes based on social norms (for example, masculinity and femininity).
Gender identity is an individual's understanding of their gender.
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Fig. 2 - Gender identity is an individual's understanding of their gender.
The history of sex and gender roles is contested.
Talcott Parsons believed biological differences between men and women were 'natural', and that determined their social roles. These roles were further reinforced through the process of socialisation.
From a functionalist perspective, based on their capability to bear children, lactate, and other abilities, women should perform the 'expressive' role, and be more caring or nurturing. Men, based on their physical strength, should play an 'instrumental', or breadwinner role. They should be the ones to earn money and provide for the family.
From a feminist perspective, gender identity is a socially constructed phenomenon. It is an outcome of patriarchy. Feminists argue that a male-dominated society creates and reinforces stereotypical expectations of gender roles based on masculinity and femininity. They point to the fact that 'feminine' identity is mostly linked to being submissive, showing a lack of confidence and ambition, etc.
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Jeffrey Weeks, a historian and postmodernist sociologist, believes that sexual identity is more complex than any other aspect of an individual's identity.
Individuals who identify themselves as 'gay' don't always participate in same-sex sexual activities, and those who engage in same-sex sexual activities aren't necessarily 'gay'. In basic terms, homosexual behaviour doesn't necessarily lead to a homosexual identity.
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Age identity
While many believe age to be a biological component, sociologists argue that it is a social construct, and learned during primary and secondary socialisation.
Age identity is broadly categorised into childhood, youth/adolescence, middle age, and old age (these are ascribed by society).
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Individuals are exposed to different cultural characteristics depending on where they are placed during their lives.
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During childhood, one experiences a protective and privileged environment provided by the family. In educational institutes, the child is exposed to norms, rules, and regulations placed to impose restrictions on behaviour.
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In old age, individuals are often associated with social stigmas like being dependent, weak, or lonely. As Philipson argues, they're seen as a 'burden' on society.
A Marxist perspective suggests that this approach towards the elderly is a result of capitalism. That is, once the elderly reach the end of their working lives, their spending power reduces. Age identities are also influenced by gender, of course.
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One might consider that access to anti-ageing cream, hair dye, and cosmetic surgery indicates pressure on the representation of aged people, especially women.
Postmodernists argue that attitudes towards age have been changing in recent decades.
The media represents old people differently, now - wearing fashionable clothes, enjoying sports or holidays: being examples of a 'youthful' old age in news advertisements and magazines.
Social class identity
In sociology, class is commonly referred to as a classification of people who share economic or occupational situations. When people identify with other members of their group (class), it gives them a sense of 'collective identity'.
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The economic circumstances of an individual influence their upbringing, lifestyle, health, schooling, etc. People with similar economic backgrounds share norms and values and start developing into a social class.
Social class is traditionally divided into three categories.
- The upper class
- The middle class
- The working class
These social class identities are formed during the process of socialisation through social agents (family, peer group, workplace). The few popular aspects on which class is judged or assessed are occupation, money/income, possessions (gadgets, car, jewellery, etc.), lifestyle/leisure, and so forth.
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Ethnic identity
According to Weber, ethnicity is a social construct, for it is based on subjective beliefs created by the members of the group.
Theorists consider ethnic groups as 'imagined communities' whose members identify with each other based on language, shared ancestry (race), religion, dressing sense, etc. Based on these characteristics, members of ethnic groups distinguish themselves as culturally different from other groups.
The concept of ethnicity is related to cultural differences in societies. However, people belonging to an ethnic group might not always share cultural characteristics.
In the UK, Asians are considered an ethnic group. Those who fall under this group belong to different nationalities (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.), different religions (Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc.), and different language groups (Gujarati, Punjabi, Bengali, etc.). Sociologists refer to this group as British Asians.
Studies on ethnic identities highlight the importance of ethnic minorities.
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Nationality and identity
National identity is mostly associated with a person's sense of belonging to a particular country.
According to Anderson, national identity is socially constructed. He believes that nation is an imagined community. Its members might never meet in person, but continue to share an identity through socially constructed symbols like the flag, an anthem, the national language, etc.
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Durkheim suggests national identity gives people a sense of belonging to a larger group. Individuals decide on having a certain national identity by identifying characteristics of other nationalities.
Individuals can define their sense of being 'English' against what they believe being 'French' means.
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Hybrid identity
Hybrid identity can be identified when an individual's sense of 'who they are' is formed out of two or more characteristics.
An individual can have an identity as British, but also Hindu and Indian. This is a result of a complex global culture.
Disability and identity
Individuals with a physical or mental impairment consider disability as a significant aspect of identity. Even though the Disability Discrimination Act (1995) provides legal and enforceable rights to disabled people, they face discrimination and barriers to full inclusion.
The two major approaches in understanding the concept of disability in society are:
According to the medical model, disability is a medical situation that creates limitations due to impairment. The problem with this approach is that it leads to holding the disabled person responsible for their impairment, and not society for leaving their needs unmet. This results in victim-blaming. Due to this, disabled people often view themselves as 'victims', and hold physical disability responsible for their failure.
In contrast, the social model focuses on social and physical barriers. For example, a public space that makes no effort to help those with mobility issues, or a building that denies access to those with disabilities. Society puts the label of disability based on its perception of what is 'abnormal' or 'normal'.
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Some argue to use the term 'differently abled' over disabled for people with any impairment. Interactionists use the term 'master status' to define the stigma associated with disabled people, and how it becomes their defining characteristic. Society starts identifying them only based on their impairment, and not as a young woman, for example.
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It can be concluded that one faces major obstacles in forming a positive disabled identity, as society often tends to avoid the disabled or treat them sympathetically or awkwardly.
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Social identity theorists
While functionalists like Durkheim believe that individuals internalise the norms and values of society, which in turn shapes their personality, identity, and who they are, Marxists provide a contrasting theoretical framework.
Marx proposes a close relationship between identity and social class. According to Marx, individuals create their ideas and identity based on relative autonomy, an expression to define the feeling of freedom given by the ruling class. It implies that a person's identity is determined by the individual's relationship to the means of production.
S. Hall argues that a person's identity is not formed out of personal attributes, but is predetermined.
A person born to those who own the means of production will eventually become a part of the ruling class.
Hall also believes that identity is influenced by the ideas we create about others around us and the perception of others about ourselves.
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According to postmodernists, individuals in contemporary societies are no longer ascribed identities. They are no longer constrained by traditional values and patterns like loyalty, gender, age, or social class.
They argue that identity has become more fluid and fragmented in a global culture where individuals are free to construct their own identities. With intensifying globalisation, increased mobility of people, and the rising influence of mass media, identity has become less stable.
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As a result, identity has become far more dynamic and focused on individuals, rather than on shared or collective group identity.
Social Identity - Key takeaways
- Identity is a socially constructed phenomenon. It is an individual or collective representation of social categories such as class, gender, age, ethnicity, etc.
- An individual's identity can be clubbed under two categories: ascribed and achieved.
- Erving Goffman illustrates his idea about identity by describing how individuals adopt roles and use techniques to create an impression. He uses the term dramaturgy, an idea that the social world is a play in which all individuals are actors.
- The main factors that shape identity are social class, gender, ethnicity, age, disability, and nationality.
- Marxists, functionalists and postmodernists provide contrasting theoretical perspectives on identity.
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