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Jetzt kostenlos anmeldenHave you ever noticed that there are some behaviours, traits, norms, and beliefs that we consider 'natural'? Or, have you heard someone dismiss something as 'just the way it is'?
Sociologists argue that this is a product of socialisation. We will be exploring what that means throughout this explanation. We'll look at:
Socialisation is a lifelong process that helps the individual to be socially accepted. In return, their behaviour helps society function smoothly. Put another way:
Socialisation is the process an individual undergoes to learn values, norms, and customs in accordance with societal needs and expectations.
There are two major types of socialisation that an individual goes through; primary and secondary socialisation. Although you may have come across these terms before, it may be helpful to have a reminder.
Primary socialisation takes place from early childhood to adolescence. The individual is strongly influenced by their primary relationships (family, siblings, peer group, etc) in learning basic skills and values. An important part of primary socialisation is being taught what is 'right' and 'wrong' behaviour.
The process of secondary socialisation takes place from adulthood and continues throughout life. The influencing factors belong outside one's family and extend to other peer groups (such as educational institutes, and the workplace).
There are some key theories that can be studied to compare the effects of the process of socialisation.
C.H. Cooley emphasised that an individual's sense of self or own identity arises through social interaction. The basic forms of interaction that occur in the primary and secondary groups in the process of socialisation serve as the foundation for the development of one's personal identity.
An individual, in the midst of an interaction, takes into account how others evaluate their behaviour. Based on their reaction, the individual establishes an understanding of themselves. The process is like looking in a mirror; one tries to imagine how they appear to others and imagines how others perceive them. Cooley termed this concept the looking-glass self.
The theory implies that the sense of 'self' is an outcome of socialisation, and individuals adjust their behaviour according to their judgement of how others think about them.
G.H. Mead outlined the process through which the social 'self' is developed. Mead's theory is based on the concept of 'I' and 'me'.
'I' is the biologically driven 'unsocialised' child, whereas 'me' is the 'socialised' aspect of the individual who is aware of society's expectations.
'I' allows the individual to express spontaneously and creatively. 'Me' is based on learned behaviours and attitudes and relates to the expectation of others in society. One learns to distinguish between 'I' and 'me'. This is the process through which the 'self' is developed.
This development of 'self' is divided into different stages - imitation, the play stage, and the game stage. Let's examine these below.
At this initial stage, young children engage in imitating the actions of others around them even if they might not understand the significance of the action.
A child sees their parent talking on the phone and imitates the motion by holding an object close to the ear.
Progressing through the imitation stage, the child reaches:
At this stage, the child enacts a specific role in the form of play.
A child enacts the role of a parent, teacher, or any other intimate relation, and 'behaves' like the person they are playing.
Mead defines the group that shares a close emotional relationship with the child as significant others.
Gradually, the child progresses into:
At this stage, the child engages in organised games. They gain an understanding of the rules of the game and notions of fairness in order to be successful in the activity. The child takes the role of generalised others and grasps an understanding of the expectation and judgements that others may have towards the role.
Mead used basketball as an example.
In basketball, when one player has the ball in hand, they look at their teammates or coach to understand what they expect from them, and play accordingly. In other words, one tries to understand the perspective of others and acts accordingly to complete the task successfully.
The transition from the play stage to the game stage plays a crucial role in the development of 'self'. The child goes through a process of internalising external opinions and emerges with a discrete identity.
One also gets a deeper understanding of 'me' (the part of 'self' that lets one take the role of others) and 'I' (that part that is biologically driven).
Let's look at the perspectives of Freud, Erikson and Piaget.
According to Sigmund Freud, human behaviour is guided towards satisfaction by two major instincts: Eros (an instinct for life) and Thanatos (an instinct for death). The former commonly represents sexual urges, whereas the latter represents the urge to act aggressively.
Freud termed the tension between these instinctual forces as id. It is the part of the human personality that acts as the source of all basic impulses and drives, solely geared towards attaining immediate gratification.
A good example would be an infant crying for food. The id in this case would create a level of frustration that is expressed through crying.
However, immediate gratification is not always possible. As children grow, they learn to cope with feelings as consequences of unmet needs. This aspect represents the conscious part of one's personality, which is called the ego.
The ego maintains a balance between desire and action.
As a result of interaction, societal norms and values become part of the individual's psyche. Freud uses the term superego as an expression to define these ethical components that reinforce the conscious understanding of the ego.
Freud's student Erik Erikson believed individuals go through a normative crisis, which is a struggle between what is expected of them by society and what they actually accomplish. His theory focused on the biological, social, and individual dimensions that shape a person's identity, and how they ultimately make a person physiologically healthy.
In the 1950s, Erikson created the eight-stage theory of development which is outlined in the table below.
STAGE | PERIOD (Age) | FAVOURABLE RESOLUTION ATTITUDE | UNFAVOURABLE RESOLUTION ATTITUDE | PSYCHOSOCIAL TASK |
1 | Early infancy (newborn - 1) | Trust autonomy initiative | Mistrust | Hope |
2 | Late infancy (2 - 3) | Shame and doubt | Want | |
3 | Early childhood (4 - 5) | Guilt | Purpose | |
4th | Middle childhood (6-12) | Industry | Inferiority | Competency |
5 | Adolescence (13-19) | Identity | Identity confusion | Fidelity |
6th | Early adulthood (20-24) | Intimacy | Isolation | Love |
7th | Middle adulthood (25-64) | Generativity | Stagnation | Care |
8th | Late adulthood (25+) | Ego integrity | Despair | Wisdom |
Jean Piaget’s theory of personality development emphasised the importance of cognition rather than emotional components. The following are the four stages of development according to Piaget.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
In this stage, the infant learns about the world through basic sensations and movements and develops cognitive abilities that include imitation, recognition of self, and representational play. At about eight months, the infant grasps the knowledge of object permanence, i.e., knowing that objects exist even if they cannot be seen.
2. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
Children acquire the ability to represent the world using language and images. However, they do not develop logical reasoning at this stage. Their judgment remains subjective, based on intuitions, and largely egocentric.
3. Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
Children at this stage develop the ability to think logically about real occurrences. They begin to understand shapes, the concept of conservation, how other people might think or express themselves, and the thoughts unique to themselves that others don't know about.
4. Formal operational stage (12+)
Adolescents can reason logically, think about abstract concepts, and test hypotheses rationally. This stage is identified with the emergence of scientific reasoning, as one can deduce logical explanations when faced with problems.
In support of Piaget’s work on developmental stages, Lawrence Kohlberg proposes a three-level, six-stage theory on the concept of moral development. The table below represents this model.
LEVEL | STAGE | DESCRIPTION |
Post - conventional: Shared standards, rights, duties, and principles | 6 | Guided by the moral principle of justice |
5 | Social contract rules and laws of social good | |
Conventional: Assessing personal consequences | 4 | Judgements based on the relative rules and laws of society |
3 | Decisions based on the approval of others | |
Pre-conventional: Values based on external events | 2 | Acting to further one's own interest |
1 | Acting to avoid punishment |
However, Kolhberg’s model highlighted the stages of moral development in boys. That raises the question of whether girls go through similar stages.
Carol Gilligan stated that girls, unlike boys, take personal relationships into account during moral development. According to her, men and women go through fundamentally different patterns of interaction.
It is society's failure that it considers the male pattern as the norm, without acknowledging the difference in developmental trajectories between males and females. The theory implies that both men and women develop moral senses through the process of interaction. But societal standards create a difference in the development of their moral senses.
Let's look at some more theoretical perspectives on socialisation, including the functionalist and conflict perspectives.
Based on Émile Durkheim’s work, this perspective attempts to draw attention towards social institutions that help us learn the norms and values.
According to him, society shapes the individual. Shared values and common symbols are passed through generations that not only help to shape human consciousness but also maintain social stability. He also argued that society needs to create a sense of solidarity to survive over time.
Durkheim identified that traditional societies maintained mechanical solidarity through religious and family ties, which led to anomie, as such ties had less relevance in modern societies. He theorised that modern societies would eventually rely on institutions like education, work, and other organisations to gain a sense of organic solidarity.
Functionalists after Durkheim argue that educational institutions, religions, and workplaces are now crucial agents of secondary socialisation. For instance:
Education: children are taught discipline and values like respect for authority, punctuality, and time management.
Religion: religious faiths instil moral standards and ideals in young people that, when upheld, help to unite society.
Workplace: young people become working adults who are responsible and aware of their social obligations. They contribute to social stability through employment and productivity.
The conflict perspective, based on Karl Marx's conflict theory, believes that groups in society are in constant conflict over power and resources. Competition lies at the heart of social relationships, and groups in power use their resources and their influence over social institutions to exercise power over disadvantaged groups. Institutions such as schools, workplaces, and the family socialise individuals by teaching them the norms and beliefs that support the interests of the powerful.
Marxism, a perspective that argues that capitalist society is based on the conflict between social classes and the tyranny of the ruling class, asserts that both primary and secondary socialisation are vital for capitalism. Working-class children are socialised to accept the social order, and when they grow up, they assume their roles as labourers for rich capitalists.
Feminism is another conflict perspective which criticises the patriarchal nature of society. At the core of this theory lies the concept that gender inequalities are socially constructed and not determined biologically.
Feminists argue that gender roles and expectations assigned during primary socialisation by the family benefit men at the expense of women, creating gender inequality. Secondary socialisation further perpetuates these gender roles through institutions such as the media, education, and religion.
Little girls may be raised with the expectations of becoming wives and mothers when they grow up, and praised for displaying "feminine" traits such as caring for others, doing housework, focusing on their appearance, etc.
The two main theoretical perspectives on socialisation, functionalism and conflict theories, can be evaluated as follows:
Functionalism points out how socialisation performs positive functions by establishing rules and order and creating social stability in society.
However, it fails to mention how socialisation can be detrimental. Marxists and feminists would argue that it plays a vital role in spreading capitalist and patriarchal ideologies.
Also, not all forms of socialisation are stabilising or create social solidarity, e.g. in the case of children born to parents with different values or who engage in criminal or deviant behaviour.
Marxism highlights how processes of socialisation maintain capitalism and the social class hierarchy and how these ideologies are ingrained from young ages and maintained throughout life.
Similarly, feminism shows us how gender roles and expectations and issues of gender inequality are not 'natural' or due to inherent differences between genders.
It can be argued, though, that the conflict perspectives do not pay enough attention to the stability that socialisation creates in society, and that some people are socialised differently (i.e. not in capitalist or patriarchal ways).
The major theories of socialisation are:
The process an individual goes through to learn the values, norms, and customs in accordance with societal needs is called socialisation. The various socialisation theories offer explanations of how individuals function in the social world. These theories help us compare and evaluate the effectiveness of the process.
Socialisation is the process an individual undergoes to learn values, norms, and customs in accordance with societal needs and expectations.
There is no single theory of socialisation, but several theories that attempt to explain it.
There are four major theories of socialisation:
According to Sigmund Freud, human behaviour is guided towards satisfaction by two major instincts: Eros (an instinct for life) and Thanatos (an instinct for death). The former commonly represents sexual urges, whereas the latter represents the urge to act aggressively.
He devised the terms id, ego, and superego to denote base impulses, the balanced consciousness, and the social/ethical psyche respectively.
What is primary socialisation?
Primary socialisation takes place from early childhood to adolescence. During this period, the individual is strongly influenced by their primary relationships (family, siblings, peer group, etc.) in learning basic skills and values.
What is secondary socialisation?
Secondary socialisation begins at adulthood and continues throughout life. The influencing factors belong outside one’s family and extend to other peer groups (educational institutes, workplace, etc.).
According to Durkheim, what leads to ‘anomie’?
Durkheim identified that traditional societies maintained mechanical solidarity through religious and family ties, which led to anomie, as such ties had less relevance in modern societies.
What did Cooley mean by ‘looking-glass self’?
During an interaction, individuals perceive an understanding of themselves. It is like looking in a mirror; one tries to imagine how they may appear to others, and how others perceive them. Cooley termed this concept the looking-glass self.
According to Freud, what are the three components that balance human behaviour?
The three components are id, ego, and superego.
What is the difference between ‘I’ and ‘me’ in Mead’s theory of ‘self’?
‘I’ is the biologically driven ‘unsocialised’ child. 'Me’ is the ‘socialised’ aspect of the individual, which is aware of society’s expectations.
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