Not everyone believes that the family is a warm, loving haven to come home to at the end of a long day. For some, it can be the focal point of inequality and oppression.
We will be looking at feminist perspectives on the family.
- First, we will look at some key terms and examples of feminist perspectives on the family.
- We will then look at the liberal, Marxist, radical and intersectional feminist perspectives on the family.
- Lastly, we will consider criticisms of the feminist view of the family from other sociological perspectives.
Before we consider these perspectives, it may be helpful to remind ourselves of feminism generally.
Feminism is a sociological conflict theory that believes society is in constant conflict between men and women.
The feminist perspective argues that:
- society is patriarchal - it is based on inequalities between men and women; men are in control of society and oppress women.
- patriarchy leads to gender inequality, which means men have more power and status than women.
Now that we have outlined the general theory of feminism, let us consider how feminists view the family.
Examples of feminist perspectives on the family
We will first consider some key points about general feminist perspectives on the family. Later, we will look at different types of feminism and their views on the family.
The nuclear family
We will be considering feminist perspectives on the nuclear family, which is a traditional family structure comprising a married, heterosexual couple with one or more children.
Traditional gender roles may play a part in this structure, namely; the husband is the breadwinner and the wife stays at home and deals with childcare and household chores. However, the nuclear family can also include families where the mother works as well.
For many reasons, feminists find this family type to be problematic and harmful to women. We will now go through some examples of the feminist perspective on the family.
Socialisation
Feminists agree with functionalists and New Right theorists that the nuclear family performs functions. However, the similarity ends there as feminists do not see these functions as positive.
According to feminist sociologists, the nuclear family socialises children into adopting certain characteristics and personality traits that 'align' with traditional beliefs about gender and gender roles. These benefit men at the expense of women.
Young girls are encouraged to be passive, non-confrontational, submissive and 'ladylike', whilst boys are encouraged to be dominant, assertive and competitive. Children are taught that masculine qualities (emulated by boys) are admirable, while feminine traits (displayed by girls) are not.
Fig. 1 - Feminists argue that children are socialised in accordance with traditional beliefs about gender and gender roles.
According to feminists, such socialisation begins in the nuclear family as children see these differences recreated between their parents. Through this, boys and girls are taught that such differences are biological and inevitable.
Gender socialisation is strengthened and reinforced by other institutions such as education. For instance, boys are encouraged to take up 'masculine' subjects whilst girls are expected to study subjects perceived as 'feminine'. This is also recreated in work environments in adulthood.
Hiring managers may be hesitant to hire women for leadership roles if they believe that a man would inherently be better at them. Instead, they may hire women for more 'feminine' roles, such as secretarial roles where women will cater to others' needs and follow orders.
As such, the nuclear family is the 'base' for socialisation that oppresses women. This process conditions women to accept rigid gender roles.
Gender roles
The socialisation that occurs within the nuclear family helps boys and girls accept traditional gender roles. They are told that the roles are natural divisions in accordance with biological differences between men and women.
The table below shows examples of how beliefs can translate into gender roles within society.
| Belief (learnt during socialisation) | Gender role for men | Gender role for women |
| Men are competitive and women are not | Breadwinner and 'go-getter' | Housewife, as they cannot do well in fast-paced, stressful environments |
| Men should be assertive and women should be non-confrontational | Decision-makers, both within the family and in wider society | Following decisions made by men without 'challenging' them |
| Women are more nurturing | Men could get away with being less hands-on in their children's lives and focus on making a career | Women should be mothers and focus on raising children as they are 'better' at it |
Table 1 - How beliefs can translate into gender roles within society for men and women.
Within the family, gender roles reinforce patriarchy as the roles are designed to benefit men at the expense of women. This happens in the following ways:
- if/when women are discouraged from working, they are forced to be financially reliant on their husbands whilst their husbands get the opportunity to build their careers
- women take on the burden of housework and childcare (even if they work) which means they get less time for rest and leisure, whilst men can come home from work and relax
- women are expected to take care of children and any sick or elderly relatives, which is even more work and responsibility
- women cannot make big decisions concerning the family as this is reserved for the 'man' of the household (usually the breadwinner).
Since men are usually the breadwinners in the nuclear family, they are more likely to be dominant in the decision-making. This can range from choices such as where to go on holiday, whether the family should move houses or which car to buy.
In contrast, women are more likely to make decisions in relation to the everyday organisation of the home, such as grocery shopping, purchasing new household appliances and helping children with school or extra-curricular activities.
Feminists argue that in a nuclear family structure, decision-making is unequal and male-dominated.
Labour
Another way in which the nuclear family structure oppresses women is through the division of labour, which is largely unequal. Women are expected to take on the majority of labour, both domestic and emotional.
Domestic labour
Domestic labour refers to household chores such as cooking, cleaning, and other forms of unpaid work undertaken around the house.
Due to conventional gender roles, women traditionally took on the roles of housewives, mothers and home-makers where they carried out all of the domestic labour.
However, in modern times, women make up half of the workforce yet continue to carry out the majority of domestic labour and childcare. Statistics from the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2016 show that women engage in an average of 60% more unpaid work than men. 'Unpaid work' includes childcare, cleaning and cooking.
Christine Delphy and Diana Leonard (1992) argue that since all of the housework and childcare is handled by women, their contribution to the family is the largest. On the other hand, men make the least contribution yet stand to gain the most from the nuclear family structure. Wives are exploited by their husbands for unpaid labour.
Similarly, in the 1970s, Ann Oakley argued that housework is difficult and unrewarding for women and that this arrangement of free labour works in favour of men.
According to feminists, women do not get a break, as childcare and housework duties do not 'finish' at the end of the day in the same way paid employment does. Even where women undertake employment, they are expected to come home and deal with housework and children whilst men can clock out and relax.
Fig. 2 - Feminists argue that the division of labour is largely unequal in the nuclear family.
Emotional labour
Margaret Benston (1972) asserts that part of the housewife's role is to provide emotional support to her husband so that he can continue working.
Sociologists such as Delphy and Leonard (1992) also point out that women are expected to acknowledge and appreciate their husbands' success and accomplishments, although the reverse is not expected of men. Women are also expected to help their husbands de-stress and relax, often by offering themselves sexually.
Contrast this perspective with Talcott Parsons' Warm Bath Theory, where he believes the nuclear family acts as a 'warm bath' for men to come home to at the end of the day. It's a very different opinion on the same phenomenon!
Jean Dunscombe and Dennis Marsden (1995) coined the term 'triple shift' to denote the responsibilities women have to undertake in the family:
- housework
- childcare
- emotional labour
This is because although women now make up half of the workforce, men still do not carry out half of the housework and childcare. As a result, women are forced to do more.
Liberal feminist perspectives on the family
Despite acknowledging that the family has been a source of inequality and subjugation for women, liberal feminists are generally optimistic about achieving gender equality. They believe that with adequate legal reforms and changes in social attitudes, family life can be made equal for both men and women. It is not inherently unequal.
They note the following legal and social changes that have positively impacted women in families and heterosexual relationships:
- Gender discrimination in employment is now illegal due to the 1970 Equal Pay Act and 1975 Sex Discrimination Act
- Women now have greater reproductive control and choices, which means they can make choices about having a family on their own terms
- Marital rape was made illegal in the UK in 1991
- Changes in divorce laws mean it is easier for women to make decisions on whether to stay in marriages
Further, feminists argue that there have been changes in other areas. Helen Wilkinson (1994) notes that women now have more economic power because of the rise of women in the workforce, particularly in the services sector.
Sue Sharpe compared the attitudes and ambitions of working-class girls in the 1990s and compared them to the attitudes of working-class girls in the 1970s. Through her interviews, she noted that the girls in the 1990s were more committed to gender equality, had career-centred ambitions rather than family-centred and wanted to be more independent.
Solutions to gender equality in family life
For liberal feminists, achieving gender equality within the family is more about striving for changes in employment policies and gender socialisation.
Changes in employment policies
Feminists should work towards a greater level of gender equality in the family structure, namely, to distribute the responsibilities of housework and childcare more equally. Liberal feminists believe that this can be done with changes in employment policies.
Jennifer Somerville (2000) argues that changes in working culture and hours need to be made for parents that work so that they can equally share household and childcare duties.
Gender socialisation
Oakley (1979) argues that gender socialisation forces us to conform to gender expectations from a young age. This comes from hegemonic masculinity (the expectation for boys to be protectors, providers and aggressors) and hegemonic femininity (the pressure for girls to be nurturing, supportive and appearance-focused). Boys and girls are taught from a young age that boys and masculine traits are 'superior' to girls.
Distinctions between boys and girls are also reinforced through gender-specific behaviours and words, such as gendered toys, books, appearances, and media representations (among others). Oakley argues that such forms of socialisation must be challenged to achieve gender equality within the family.
Marxist feminist perspective on family
Feminists who also operate from a Marxist viewpoint believe that women are oppressed in the family due to the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy. This is because capitalism benefits from the oppression of women in many ways:
Unpaid labour
Women are used for unpaid labour (housework, childcare) so that the current workers (the men) can continue working and being exploited by the capitalist system. Unpaid labour sustains not only patriarchy but also capitalism.
As women have no economic power or independence, men maintain the power and status in the family and take advantage of women, both in the home and in capitalist society.
According to Benston (1972), women do not challenge their role in society because they have been socialised to comply and believe that this is their natural role. This means that they are also unlikely to fight for compensation for their services. In addition, they are likely to socialise the next generation of workers to also be this way.
Reproduction
Women's role in the family is primarily to have children, which reproduces the next generation of proletariat workers.
Reserve labour
Women are a cheap army of reserve labour as they can step in to work if necessary. This is beneficial for the bourgeoisie as they can continue to make profits.
Absorption of anger
Women serve the function of absorbing men's anger, stress and frustration toward capitalist society. This enables men to continue working and makes it less likely that they will revolt against their conditions.
Marxist feminist Fran Ansley (1972) argues that men's frustration towards capitalism is misdirected toward women; this often manifests through domestic violence.
Fig. 3 - Marxist feminists argue that capitalism benefits from women's unpaid labour.
Solutions to gender equality in family life
For Marxist feminists, achieving gender inequality begins with the abolishment of capitalism as well as patriarchy.
Unpaid labour is highly beneficial for the functioning of the capitalist economy. Women should be paid for their unpaid labour so that capitalism can stop benefitting from women's work while exploiting them. If the system is abolished, women will no longer need to provide unpaid labour or serve any other functions that benefit capitalism.
Radical feminist perspective on family
Radical feminists believe that the main source of oppression for women in the family is patriarchy itself. No matter how many legal and social changes are made, men will continue to oppress women, as they are inherently patriarchal.
For radical feminists, the whole system of patriarchy needs to be abolished so that women can be free of oppression and exploitation.
The nuclear family is a key source of oppression for women in many ways:
- It is usually the first area where children are socialised into patriarchal ideology, whereby they believe that men are superior to women.
- As part of this ideology, they are taught to accept the division and distinction between the genders, which helps girls and women accept their place in society. This means they are likely to uphold patriarchal views and practices.
- Women are objectified; before marriage, they are seen purely as sexual objects and after marriage, they are seen as housewives and mothers.
- Objectification leads to domestic abuse (including domestic and sexual violence) at the hands of men. The perpetrators in the majority of domestic violence cases are men.
- Men use women's bodies for their benefit; they use women for sexual pleasure (and often, sexual abuse) as well as for reproduction.
Solutions to gender equality in family life
The nuclear family structure must be abolished (or drastically reformed) to find a new way of living that does not oppress and exploit women. This could be through remaining single, having children in-vitro or living with women.
Intersectional feminist perspective on family
According to intersectional feminists, there is not enough emphasis on the intersection of patriarchy with other factors, such as race, religion and class. Intersectional feminists argue that the other types of feminism assume that all women are exploited in the same way in the family.
Black feminism argues that it is important to consider racial and ethnic differences between groups of women.
Black women and White women in nuclear families may share some things in common; however, their overall experiences are unlikely to be the same. For instance, in past centuries, Black women living in poverty often worked to provide for their families while White women from middle-class backgrounds stayed at home. As such, their interests and solutions for gender equality are also unlikely to be the same.
Outside the nuclear family, there are other family types and structures that may be less oppressive for women, such as single parenthood.
Criticisms of the feminist view of the family
Let's look at criticisms of feminist perspectives on the family. Specifically, we will criticise the different branches of feminism.
Criticisms of liberal feminism
Legal and social changes have been established, however, women still largely remain oppressed in many areas of society. For example, despite multiple anti-discrimination and equal pay laws, there are still gender pay gaps in the UK and across Western societies
It ignores that patriarchy and gender inequality are rooted in all areas of society, not just in the legal and political spheres
Criticisms of Marxist feminism
It sees women as too passive; not all women conform to the beliefs and practices of capitalist and patriarchal society
It ignores growing diversity in other family types
Patriarchy and capitalism are not necessarily related as patriarchy has existed before and without capitalism
Criticisms of radical feminism
It is unrealistic to claim that all men are inherently patriarchal, and if this was the case then abolishing patriarchy may not be possible
It does not consider that whilst there is still a lot of gender inequality, there has been a lot of progress for women in modern times
We will now look at some criticisms from other sociological perspectives of the feminist view of the family.
Functionalism and the New Right
Functionalists and New Right thinkers argue that the feminist perspective of the family is overly negative. It is not a bad thing to be in a nuclear family structure.
Additionally, feminists may overlook that many women enjoy being housewives/mothers and the responsibilities that come with it.
Marxism
Feminist Perspective on the Family - Key takeaways
- The nuclear family is the 'base' for socialisation that oppresses women. This helps women accept rigid gender roles, which reinforce patriarchy.
- Liberal feminists believe gender equality can be achieved through changes in employment policies and changes in gender socialisation.
- Marxist feminists believe capitalism must be overthrown as women's unpaid labour helps to maintain the capitalist structure.
- Radical feminists believe patriarchy itself needs to be abolished to end women's oppression. They believe men will otherwise continue to oppress women.
- Intersectional feminists consider the impact of other factors on patriarchy, such as race and ethnicity, cultural and religious backgrounds and different family types.
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