We've heard a lot about theories of International Development so far - the two main perspectives being either pro-development (i.e. modernisation theory and neoliberalism) or critical of development trajectories (i.e. dependency and world systems theory).
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Jetzt kostenlos anmeldenWe've heard a lot about theories of International Development so far - the two main perspectives being either pro-development (i.e. modernisation theory and neoliberalism) or critical of development trajectories (i.e. dependency and world systems theory).
But what about beyond this dichotomy? Is there another way of characterising development, underdevelopment and global inequality?
In short, yes! This is where 'post-development' comes in.
Post-development argues that everything we've learnt so far about what indicates whether a country is 'developed' is, in essence, a form of 'Western', ethnocentric form of discourse.
Put more plainly: the majority of the indicators, measurements, classifications and theories of development, underdevelopment and global inequality we've seen so far....have all been created and constructed by experts in the 'West', who've tried to impose a particular model of development on the rest of the world.
This model refers to a capitalist-industrial model of development.
Just remember why Rostow developed modernisation theory in the first place!
If you need a refresher of the indicators, measurements and classifications that surround global development, then give our 'Development' explanation a read! If you need a refresher on the theories, check out our International Development Theories article!
Instead of arguing for, or against, a capitalist-industrial development model, post-development theory argues that there is no universal model of development to be followed: there is no grand meta-narrative.
Post-development theory argues that there is no universal model of development to be followed, and that current ideas around development have been constructed by experts in Western countries who've tried to impose their beliefs on the developing world (i.e. they are a form of Eurocentric discourse).
Consequently, out of post-development thinking, a focus on People-Centred Development was put forward. To understand this, however, let's first look at when post-development theory began, and who its main architect was.
Arturo Escobar is one of the leading post-development scholars who helped establish the thesis in the 1990s. For Escobar, post-development is essentially a critique of the current Eurocentric discourse and approach surrounding global development. As Escobar states in a 2018 online interview called "Farewell to Development" for The Great Transition Initiative:
Two key elements define the concept of 'post-development'. The first questions the central premises of development, [i.e.] economic growth and material progress… the second... is that African, Asian, and Latin American nations can and should put forward alternatives to development that incorporate non-Western concepts of what constitutes a thriving society." 2
In short, Escobar is saying that post-development is an argument not for 'development alternatives', such as the ideas of sustainable or equitable development, but alternatives to development completely - it is a complete paradigm shift (Escobar, 2018).
Developing countries should be able to make decisions for themselves based on their own choices; on their own discourses.
Economic growth is no longer tied to the idea of development. The idea of empowering the individual and pursuing consumerism no longer takes centre stage. Western-style Industrialisation in the pursuit of profit is not only problematic but wholly destructive.
If the aim of development is to create a higher standard of living and quality of life for the whole global population, then Escobar would have us ask ourselves: what really constitutes a greater quality of life? Are policies to improve the people's lives in the global south really best understood and contemplated by those in the West? Does growing global inequality not speak to the failures of the global development trajectory taken over the 20th century?
As additional food for thought - are the seemingly chronic and growing rates of mental health decline in advanced Western economies not a sign and symptom of a socio-economic system that no longer works? And if so, then is this really the kind of development end-point we want other countries to aspire to?
One to think about!
What is the relationship between post-development theory and discourse analysis?
Using the lens of discourse devised by Michel Foucault, post-development represents development as an inflexible and dominant discourse that actually constructs the problems that it claims to solve.
In many ways, post-development theory is a new form of discourse which challenges the current debate, knowledge and ideas that have dominated global development trajectories.
Development is seen as 'progress' and that progress is overwhelmingly calculated by economic growth. This economic growth is measured by indicators such as GDP or GNI per capita for example.
Post-development challenges this entire framework!
As for what makes a particular form of discourse pervasive, for Foucault, this comes down to historic embedded forms of power that legitimise some discourses (or views) and disregard others.
For instance, voting rights for women. In the UK women were not allowed to vote until 1918.
The discourse surrounding women's right to vote was framed around ideas that women were intellectually inferior to men and that women were 'too emotional' to vote 'rationally' and 'logically': the woman's role was not in politics but should be contained to matters of family.
Yet, as the suffragette movement gained momentum, more people started talking about the subject, opinions began to change, and the distribution of power experienced a shift. That is, the discourse changed from being completely patriarchal to a more inclusive system.
Heavy stuff! And don't worry, if you're an A-level student, this is beyond the scope of global development.
However, if you're at university, Michel Foucault's works and discourse analysis are fundamental to the contemporary academic landscape and I would implore you to research more!
I know what you're thinking though, what about an example of post-development in-action? It's easy to criticise existing frameworks, but what would post-development look like in reality?
Well, keep on reading!
Both Bhutan and Buen Vivir provide examples of post-development thinking applied in practice. Let's look at each in turn.
Bhutan has decided to measure development in an entirely different way. Instead of measuring 'growth' in economic terms, i.e. by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), it has instead decided to use 'Gross National Happiness.'
As Marshall Sahlins (1997) indicates in a post-development argument: Western Aid agencies wrongly equate poverty with unhappiness - being poor and having few material possessions does not necessarily mean an inferior quality of life or perceived sense of happiness.
Global development narratives take no account of the fact that happiness also comes from strong communal and family bonds. As Reyes-García et al. (2021) discovered in a journal article titled Happy just because: A cross-cultural study on subjective wellbeing in three Indigenous societies, Indigenous people experience moderately high levels of happiness the majority of the time - "happiness just because". In fact, varying levels of happiness correlated not to poverty but health and social factors.
Buen Vivir translates as 'good living'. It is a concept developed in the Andean region of Latin America that has been enlisted into the constitutions of Bolivia and Ecuador. In short, Buen Vivir promotes collective well-being and places Indigenous knowledge at the heart of development policies.
Buen Vivir sees the environment and human activity as inseparable - each is affected by the other. As Escobar (2018: online interview) states: "it confronts basic assumptions about progress, competition, consumerism, and materialism". In other words, it confronts the current Eurocentric discourse of development.
As a result, Buen Vivir - which is being practised by many local and remote communities in Bolivia and Ecuador - brings the idea of environmentalism into the equation of development. It highlights an alternative model of development: a people and planet-centred approach to development.
The examples of Buen Vivir and Bhutan highlight different models of development. They are post-development ideas in practice. Instead of being 'top-down', they are 'bottom-up', which is sometimes described as 'grassroots development'.
Grassroots development puts forward the idea that people living in developing countries should have a say in how their countries should develop. That is, the process should be more ‘people centred’ so that the communities, whom the development projects would affect, are now the driving force in the process (see David C. Korten (1995)).
'Top-Down' Example: enforcing Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on developing countries.
'Bottom-Up' example: The Kuapa Kokoo project in Ghana - a cooperative of cocoa farmers that supply Fairtrade chocolate for the benefit of receiving higher and fairer prices for their goods.
People-Centred Development is characterised by a focus on:
The use of local knowledge
Locally sourced resources (such as communal farming - i.e. the idea of 'community participation)
Renewable technologies (e.g. SOLshare)
Ethical decided by local communities and small-scale projects
Often provided by NGOs with no conditions
The advantages and criticisms of post-development theory can be assessed through the alternative development approaches it has helped spur. In particular, the development of the 'People-Centred Development' approach and the increasing focus on environmentalism within this. However, it is not without its critics.Let's explore both sides of the post-development debate...
It challenges the 'Eurocentric discourse' surrounding global development. It successfully brings the positions of the global south into the spotlight.
It has successfully spurred a variety of development approaches such as People-Centred Development; 'de-growth' and 'Transition Town' initiatives.
People-Centred Development projects can greatly improve the lives of local communities and do so sustainably and equitably - unlike the capitalist-industrial model of development that has been followed/enforced so far!
Post-development theory began in the 1990s.
Escobar (2018: online) defines the concept of post-development by two key elements: "The first questions the central premises of development, [i.e.] economic growth and material progress...
The second...is that [the global south] can and should put forward alternatives to development that incorporate non-Western concepts of what constitutes a thriving society."
Post-development thinkers reject, rather than reform or adapt to Western models of development. Sociologists under post-development theory consider the Western models to be unjust. In their opinion, they don't work, which is why developing countries need to find their own ways to develop.
The relationship is that post-development theory is a form of discourse analysis - its creation came out of a critique of current discourse that has led to the global development trajectories of the 20th century.
What is Post-development Theory?
Post-development theory states that: there is no universal model of development to be followed; current ideas around development have been constructed by experts in western countries who've tried to impose their beliefs on the developing world (i.e. they are a form of eurocentric discourse).
___________ believed modernisation to be ethnocentric.
Arturo Escobar
Why does Arturo Escobar criticise the Western model of development?
Escobar suggests that although the Western model of development justifies itself to be rational and scientific for being neutral and objective, it has a hierarchical structure in which people and cultures are treated as abstract figures who are moved up or down as a part of ‘progress’.
Escobar stressed modernisation theory created possibilities for opposition and conflict. True or False?
True
What did Marshall Sahlins point out?
Marshall Sahlins (1997) points out it is often assumed by the Western Aid agencies that people with insufficient material possessions are either poor or unhappy, which is unlikely because people living in developing countries might lack material possessions, but that doesn’t imply they are poor.
Give a suitable example in support of Marshall Sahlins' post-development perspective.
As Marshall Sahlins (1997) indicates in a post-development argument: Western aid agencies wrongly equate poverty with unhappiness - being poor and having few material possessions does not necessarily mean an inferior quality of life or perceived sense of happiness.
A suitable example to support this analysis would be the country, Bhutan - here, progress is measured by Gross National Happiness, instead of Gross National Product.
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