Adiabatic Expansion

Delve into the fascinating world of adiabatic expansion in this comprehensive guide, geared towards furthering your understanding of this fundamental concept in the field of engineering. Discover the historical development, assorted applications, and inherent terminology related to adiabatic expansion. This includes practical examples, the role of the adiabatic expansion coefficient, and the vital relationship with compression. Furthermore, you'll be introduced to the main aspects of the adiabatic expansion formula and its workings, effectively enhancing your depth of knowledge in engineering thermodynamics. Benefit from a distinct blend of theoretical explanation and real-world application, making every aspect of adiabatic expansion accessible and meaningful.

Get started

Millions of flashcards designed to help you ace your studies

Sign up for free
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the process of adiabatic compression take place and is it different from adiabatic expansion?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What principle is the backbone of thermal, mechanical, chemical, and material engineering courses?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the vapour compression cycle in refrigeration and air conditioning units utilise adiabatic expansion?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What does the term "adiabatic expansion" mean?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the adiabatic expansion coefficient relate to the first law of thermodynamics in adiabatic processes?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does adiabatic expansion affect weather phenomena?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What does the Greek derived word "adiabatic" signify in terms of thermodynamics?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

Who first introduced the concept of adiabatic expansion and who later enhanced its explanation?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the adiabatic expansion coefficient compare to other parameters such as the isothermal compressibility coefficient and the thermal expansion coefficient?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What is adiabatic cooling?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What is the role of adiabatic expansion in internal combustion engines?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the process of adiabatic compression take place and is it different from adiabatic expansion?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What principle is the backbone of thermal, mechanical, chemical, and material engineering courses?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the vapour compression cycle in refrigeration and air conditioning units utilise adiabatic expansion?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What does the term "adiabatic expansion" mean?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the adiabatic expansion coefficient relate to the first law of thermodynamics in adiabatic processes?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does adiabatic expansion affect weather phenomena?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What does the Greek derived word "adiabatic" signify in terms of thermodynamics?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

Who first introduced the concept of adiabatic expansion and who later enhanced its explanation?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

How does the adiabatic expansion coefficient compare to other parameters such as the isothermal compressibility coefficient and the thermal expansion coefficient?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What is adiabatic cooling?

Show Answer
  • + Add tag
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Mo

What is the role of adiabatic expansion in internal combustion engines?

Show Answer

Review generated flashcards

Sign up for free
You have reached the daily AI limit

Start learning or create your own AI flashcards

StudySmarter Editorial Team

Team Adiabatic Expansion Teachers

  • 19 minutes reading time
  • Checked by StudySmarter Editorial Team
Save Article Save Article
Contents
Contents
Table of contents

    Jump to a key chapter

      Understanding Adiabatic Expansion

      Adiabatic expansion is a critical concept in thermodynamics that you'll frequently encounter in your engineering studies. This process, occurring without any heat transfer into or out of a system, greatly influences the properties of gases and vapours. Let's delve in!

      Adiabatic Expansion Meaning Explained

      In nature, adiabatic expansion is a common process. It is when a system, typically a gas or a vapour, expands in such a way that no transfer of heat occurs with its surroundings. Here are key points about adiabatic expansion:

      • The surroundings and the system do not exchange heat.
      • Energy is conserved within the system.
      • The temperature of the system usually drops during adiabatic expansion.

      A typical example of adiabatic expansion is when the compressed air in a tire is suddenly released. This process differs from an isothermal process, where temperature remains constant, despite the change in volume.

      In a more technical approach, adiabatic expansion is governed by the first law of thermodynamics. This can be represented by the equation: \[ \Delta Q = \Delta U + \Delta W \] where \(\Delta Q\) is the change in heat, \(\Delta U\) the change in internal energy and \(\Delta W\) the work done on or by the system.

      Root Words and Terminology for Adiabatic Expansion

      The term "adiabatic" itself is derived from a Greek word meaning "impassable." It signifies a process where energy is neither gained nor lost.

      Adiabatic: This term refers to a process in which no heat transfer occurs between a system and its surroundings.

      Expansion: This term denotes an increase in volume.

      Together, 'adiabatic expansion' refers to a process where there is an increase in volume, with no heat transfer in or out of the system.

      Historical Development of Adiabatic Expansion Concept

      The evolution of the Adiabatic Expansion concept traces back to the discoveries made in the field of thermodynamics. In 1824, French physicist Sadi Carnot first introduced the idea of a heat engine working adiabatically during one of its phases.

      This concept was later enhanced by Rudolf Clausius, a German physicist, who included it as a crucial component of the first law of thermodynamics. Clausius used the concept of adiabatic expansion to validate the method of reversible heat transfer.

      Further understanding of this process has now allowed it to be used in numerous practical applications, such as engines, refrigeration cycles, and weather systems modelling.

      Interestingly, the theory of quantum mechanics extends the concept of adiabaticity. The adiabatic theorem proposed by Max Born and Vladimir Fock allows us to understand changes in quantum systems subjected to gradual changes.

      Practical Examples of Adiabatic Expansion

      Adiabatic expansion is not just a theoretical concept limited to textbooks. It's an integral part of many processes that you encounter in the world around you every day. From the weather patterns you experience to the engines powering your vehicles, adiabatic expansion plays a pivotal role. Let's explore some practical examples of this process!

      Case Study: Everyday Adiabatic Expansion Examples

      Have you ever wondered why a bicycle pump heats up when you use it or why an aerosol can feels cold after spray? The answer lies in adiabatic expansion.

      Consider using a bicycle pump to inflate a tyre. When you compress the air in the pump, there is no time for the heat to escape, resulting in an adiabatic compression. The compressed air, having high internal energy, feels warm to touch. However, when the valve is opened to inflate the tyre, the compressed air undergoes adiabatic expansion. It expands without exchanging heat with its surroundings, causing a decrease in the air's temperature inside the pump.

      This is an instance of Adiabatic Cooling, a crucial concept in both meteorology and engineering.

      Adiabatic Cooling: Refers to the cooling process when air or any gas expands without exchanging heat with its surroundings.

      Adiabatic processes also control the temperature of an aerosol can. When the can's valve is opened, the trapped high-pressure gas quickly expands. This adiabatic expansion causes the temperature of the gas (and thus the can) to drop rapidly, leading to the chilling sensation you feel on the can's surface.

      The Adiabatic Expansion Process in Weather Phenomena

      Adiabatic expansion not only impacts smaller, everyday items like aerosol cans and bicycle pumps, but it also drives large-scale meteorological phenomena.

      When the moist air near the Earth's surface begins to rise due to convection, it expands because of decreasing atmospheric pressure with altitude. Since the rising air parcel is warmer than the surrounding air and not exchanging heat with it, the expansion is an adiabatic process, causing the air parcel to cool. This dramatic temperature drop often leads to condensation, cloud formation, and even precipitation, making adiabatic cooling an integral part of the Earth's weather system.

      There are two main types of adiabatic processes that govern atmospheric temperature changes: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) when the air is unsaturated, and Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR) when the air is saturated and moisture comes into play. Understanding these lapse rates is fundamentally important for meteorologists and climate scientists alike.

      Adiabatic Expansion in Internal Combustion Engines

      The engines powering vehicles, machinery, and even electricity generators operate via the principle of adiabatic expansion.

      In an internal combustion engine, a mixture of fuel and air is compressed in a cylinder, and then ignited. After combustion, the hot gases expand rapidly. This adiabatic expansion forces the piston to move, converting the expanding gas's thermal energy into useful mechanical energy.

      Manufacturers have been striving to achieve the concept of "Adiabatic Engines," designed to have perfectly insulated cylinders where no heat is lost to the surroundings during combustion and the subsequent expansion. While a fully adiabatic engine is not yet practicable due to material limitations, improved insulation methods have led to higher efficiency and lower fuel consumption in modern engines.

      Adiabatic Engine: A theoretical engine in which no heat is transferred to or from the working gas during operation, leading to maximal thermal efficiency.

      Applications of Adiabatic Expansion in Engineering

      Adiabatic expansion continues to hold a significant place in numerous engineering applications. From thermodynamics that forms the foundation of thermal or heat-based systems to refrigeration and power generation, adiabatic expansion is a concept integrated into many processes.

      Scope and Role of Adiabatic Expansion in Thermodynamics

      The study of thermodynamics is a backbone of engineering courses like chemical, thermal, mechanical, and material engineering. Applying adiabatic expansion principles has been valuable not only in understanding the basics of heat and work but also in designing and operating various industrial equipment and processes.

      Several crucial thermodynamic cycles applying this principle include:

      • The Carnot cycle
      • The Otto cycle
      • The Diesel cycle
      • The Brayton cycle

      The Carnot cycle, which is an ideal reversible engine cycle, is comprised of two adiabatic and two isothermal processes. By contrast, the Otto cycle (internal combustion engine), Diesel cycle (diesel engine), and Brayton cycle (gas turbine) all involve adiabatic compression and expansion stages. The key technical challenge here is to design systems that closely replicate these idealized models, leading to improved industrial efficiency.

      In a nutshell, a sound understanding of the adiabatic expansion process allows:

      • Efficient work generation
      • Reduced operational costs
      • Sustainability through energy preservation

      An example of such a process comes in the form of a gas turbine. In its simplest form, a gas turbine operates in three stages: adiabatic compression of air, constant pressure addition of heat in a combustion chamber, and adiabatic expansion of the hot gases. The work generated from the expansion stage is utilised to drive machinery such as aircraft engines or electrical generators, and to compress air for the first stage of the turbine, revealing the importance and application of adiabatic processes in such machines.

      Application of Adiabatic Expansion in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

      Refrigeration, achieved through refrigeration cycles such as the vapour compression cycle, and air conditioning units, apply the adiabatic expansion principle extensively.

      In the vapour compression cycle, refrigerant is compressed adiabatically and then cooled at constant pressure in a condenser. The cooled, high-pressure refrigerant then undergoes adiabatic expansion through a throttling valve, resulting in a mixture of low-pressure liquid and vapour that absorbs heat from the cooling space in the evaporator.

      ComponentProcess
      CompressorAdiabatic compression
      CondenserIsobaric cooling
      Throttling ValveAdiabatic expansion
      EvaporatorIsobaric heat absorption

      Thus, the understanding and implementation of adiabatic expansion are crucial to designing, operating, and improving the efficiency of refrigeration and air conditioning systems. It also allows technicians and engineers to troubleshoot and repair these systems effectively.

      Adiabatic Expansion Use in Power Stations

      Adiabatic expansion is a core process used in various kinds of power stations, including thermal power stations, nuclear power plants, and geothermal power generation systems.

      In thermal power stations and nuclear power plants, superheated steam produced in a boiler or reactor vessel undergoes adiabatic expansion in turbine blades to generate mechanical work, which is ultimately converted into electrical energy. Adiabatic expansion processes within these turbines ensure maximum work output and efficiency.

      Geothermal power plants by contrast harness the Earth's interior heat. They operate by pumping heat-absorbing fluids (usually water or steam) deep into the Earth's crust. The super-heated fluid then returns to the surface, where it undergoes adiabatic expansion through a turbine, efficiently converting geothermal energy into electrical energy.

      In a more advanced technology, another form of power generation, the Combined Cycle Power Plant, a gas turbine-gen set and steam turbine are paired in sequence to generate power efficiently. Heat from the gas turbine’s exhaust is used to generate steam, which then expands adiabatically in the steam turbine, revealing that adiabatic processes are serving our modern energy needs well.

      These wide-ranging applications in various power generation methods underscore the vital importance of understanding adiabatic expansion in enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of power generation systems.

      Understanding the Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient

      Insight into the adiabatic expansion coefficient, often referred to as the heat capacity ratio or adiabatic index, is key for you to delve deeper into thermodynamics and its applications in engineering.

      Role and Importance of the Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient

      As an engineering student, understanding the adiabatic expansion coefficient is crucial, as it characterises the unique thermodynamic properties of gases under adiabatic expansion or compression. This coefficient enables the formulation and understanding of vital relations in thermodynamics, comes into play in the design and operation of a multitude of mechanical systems, and greatly influences the efficiency and performance of these systems.

      So, what exactly is the adiabatic expansion coefficient? It is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure (\(C_p\)) to the specific heat at constant volume (\(C_v\)). Remember, specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the substance per unit amount under specified conditions. It is denoted by the Greek letter gamma (\(\gamma\)).

      Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient: Defined as the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume for a gas, denoted by \(\gamma\) where, \(\gamma = \frac{C_p}{C_v}\).

      Why is it important in the study of gases undergoing adiabatic processes? It turns out that this coefficient serves a crucial function in portraying the relationship between the pressure and volume or the temperature and volume of a gas during an adiabatic process. These relations, given by \(PV^\gamma = \text{constant}\) and \(TV^{\gamma-1} = \text{constant}\), provide an essential means through which to calculate work done, heat transfer, and changes in internal energy in adiabatic processes.

      It's interesting to note that adiabatic expansion coefficient (\(\gamma\)) values are typically greater than one for real gases, as \(C_p\) is greater than \(C_v\). This is because at constant pressure, some of the added energy is used to do work by expanding the gas against its surroundings, in addition to increasing the internal energy (temperature). This extra work isn't done at constant volume, which means smaller energy input is needed to achieve the same temperature rise, resulting in a smaller \(C_v\) value.

      Mathematical Interpretation of Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient

      Now that you understand the importance of the adiabatic expansion coefficient in characterising and predicting the behaviour of gases, let's get into its mathematical interpretation.

      The adiabatic expansion coefficient (\(\gamma\)) plays a key role in the expression of the First Law of Thermodynamics for adiabatic processes which is given by:

      \[ \Delta Q = \Delta U + W \]

      Where, \(\Delta Q\) is the heat transferred, \(\Delta U\) is the change in internal energy and \(W\) is the work done.

      For an adiabatic process, which is one with no heat exchange between the system and its surroundings, \(\Delta Q = 0\), therefore the equation simplifies to:

      \[ \Delta U = -W \]

      In an adiabatic process for an ideal gas, the work done on the system is given by:

      \[ W = \frac{P2V2 - P1V1}{\gamma - 1} \]

      Here, \(P1\) and \(V1\) are initial pressure and volume, whereas \(P2\) and \(V2\) are the final pressure and volume respectively. Notice the presence of \(\gamma\) in the denominator, underscoring its importance in measuring work done in an adiabatic process.

      Comparing and Contrasting Various Coefficients

      The adiabatic expansion coefficient is not the only parameter you need to consider while studying gases. There are several other coefficients, such as the isothermal compressibility coefficient and the thermal expansion coefficient, each providing unique insights into the behaviour of the gas under given conditions.

      The isothermal compressibility coefficient, often symbolised as \(\beta\), is a measure of how much a substance can be compressed or expanded at a constant temperature. It is defined as the relative change in volume per unit increase in pressure at constant temperature, i.e., \(\beta = -\frac{1}{V}\frac{dV}{dP}\).

      On the other hand, the thermal expansion coefficient, often denoted as \(\alpha\), measures how the volume of the substance changes when the temperature changes at constant pressure. \(\alpha = \frac{1}{V}\frac{dV}{dT}\) is the formal definition.

      The adiabatic expansion coefficient, isothermal compressibility, and thermal expansion coefficients are three distinct parameters, each quantifying variations in a specific property of a gas when one variable is altered, be it volume, pressure, or temperature. While \(\gamma\) is essential for understanding gas behaviour under heat-insulating conditions (adiabatic processes), \(\beta\) and \(\alpha\) explain its behaviour under constant temperature or pressure respectively.

      • Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient (\(\gamma\)) : \(\gamma = \frac{C_p}{C_v}\)
      • Isothermal Compressibility Coefficient (\(\beta\)) : \(\beta = -\frac{1}{V}\frac{dV}{dP}\)
      • Thermal Expansion Coefficient (\(\alpha\)) : \(\alpha = \frac{1}{V}\frac{dV}{dT}\)

      Recognising how these coefficients are used separately or together in thermodynamics will enhance your understanding and capabilities within the field of engineering.

      Adiabatic Expansion Formula and Working

      When diving into the core of adiabatic expansion, one encounters the adiabatic expansion formula, a crucial tool for understanding this process. This formula unfolds significant insights about pressure, volume, and temperature relations in an adiabatic process.

      Deriving the Adiabatic Expansion Formula

      Under adiabatic conditions, meaning no heat is lost or gained, the relationship between the quantity of gas, temperature and pressure in an ideal gas is given by \(PV^\gamma = \text{constant}\). By taking the natural logarithm of both sides and differentiating, we can derive an important equation that governs the behaviour of an ideal gas undergoing adiabatic expansion or compression:

      \[ d(\ln P) + \gamma \cdot d(\ln V) = 0 \]

      This differential equation is referred to as the Adiabatic Equation, and it outlines the pressure-volume relationship for adiabatic processes. It showcases the inverse relationship between pressure and volume in this process and underscores that when the volume of a gas increases during an adiabatic expansion, the pressure decreases, and vice versa.

      To illustrate this more concretely, consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. If the piston is released in an adiabatic manner and the gas expands, the volume of the gas increases while its pressure drops. This change conforms to the adiabatic equation.

      Simplified Explanation of Adiabatic Expansion Formula

      The adiabatic expansion formula \(PV^\gamma = \text{constant}\) represents a key relationship between pressure (P) and volume (V) when a gas expands or compresses adiabatically, i.e., without gaining or losing heat. It describes how a volume increase (expansion) leads to a pressure decrease and vice versa. The constant here is a product of the initial pressure and the initial volume raised to the power of \(\gamma\), which is the adiabatic expansion coefficient. With this formula, you can calculate the final pressure or volume knowing the initial conditions and vice versa.

      Adiabatic Expansion and Compression: A Close Relationship

      Understanding adiabatic expansion isn't complete without a glance at its counterpart, adiabatic compression. While the former involves an increase in volume (and subsequent drop in pressure and temperature) with no heat exchange, the latter depicts the exact opposite. In adiabatic compression, volume decreases while pressure and temperature increase, still, without any heat exchange with the surroundings.

      Understanding The Process Of Adiabatic Compression

      Adiabatic compression is an integral part of the adiabatic process. When a gas is compressed adiabatically, its volume decreases while the pressure and temperature increase, but no heat exchange occurs with the environment. This phenomenon is dictated by the adiabatic equation \(PV^\gamma = \text{constant}\), where \(\gamma\) is the heat capacity ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume respectively.

      In the context of the ideal gas model, the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. So, when the gas is compressed adiabatically, work is done on the gas, which increases its internal energy and consequently, its temperature.

      Common examples of adiabatic compression include a bicycle pump getting warm as air is compressed inside, or gases getting hot during compression in a diesel engine.

      Relationship between Adiabatic Expansion and Compression: Detailed Examination

      In both adiabatic compression and expansion, there are no heat transfers between the system and its surroundings. But, the two processes are essentially opposite to each other. During adiabatic expansion, there is a decline in the gas pressure and temperature due to the increase in volume. In contrast, with adiabatic compression, as the volume of the gas reduces, the pressure and temperature rise because of the work done on the gas.

      Both processes are governed by the adiabatic equation, \(PV^\gamma = \text{constant}\). The expansion or compression of the gas can be completely described by this equation using the adiabatic expansion coefficient, \(\gamma\).

      A key aspect to understand here is the conservation of energy in these processes. In adiabatic expansion, the system does work on its surroundings causing its internal energy (hence, temperature) to decrease. Meanwhile in adiabatic compression, work is done on the system which increases its internal energy and subsequently, the temperature.

      Understanding the interplay between adiabatic expansion and compression deepens your understanding of adiabatic processes and thermodynamics overall, which is indispensable in fields such as engineering and physics.

      Adiabatic Expansion - Key takeaways

      • Adiabatic expansion occurs when a gas expands without exchanging heat with its surroundings, leading to a temperature decrease in the expanded gas. This phenomenon is referred to as Adiabatic Cooling.
      • Adiabatic processes are crucial in both everyday phenomena (e.g., inflating a bicycle tyre or using an aerosol can) and in large-scale meteorological phenomena, such as temperature changes in rising air masses leading to cloud formation and precipitation.
      • Adiabatic expansion is fundamental in the operation of internal combustion engines, where the rapid expansion of hot gases after combustion forces the piston to move, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.
      • Adiabatic expansion also has key applications in engineering, including in the operation of various thermodynamic cycles (e.g., Carnot, Otto, Diesel, and Brayton cycles) and in the operation of gas turbines, refrigeration and air conditioning systems, and different types of power stations.
      • The Adiabatic Expansion Coefficient, or heat capacity ratio, is a crucial determinant for the unique thermodynamic properties of gases under adiabatic expansion or compression. Mathematically it is defined as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.
      Adiabatic Expansion Adiabatic Expansion
      Learn with 15 Adiabatic Expansion flashcards in the free StudySmarter app

      We have 14,000 flashcards about Dynamic Landscapes.

      Sign up with Email

      Already have an account? Log in

      Frequently Asked Questions about Adiabatic Expansion
      What is adiabatic expansion? Please write in UK English.
      Adiabatic Expansion is a process in thermodynamics where a system expands without transferring heat with its surroundings. Its temperature decreases during expansion due to the work done by the system on its surroundings without any heat supply.
      How does adiabatic expansion work?
      Adiabatic expansion works when a gas expands without any heat being transferred to or from the gas. The process is driven by work conducted on the gas, causing its pressure and temperature to decrease due to the increase in volume.
      What is the adiabatic expansion of gas? Please write in UK English.
      Adiabatic expansion of gas is a process where gas expands without any heat transfer with its environment. This can occur when the system is insulated or happening too quickly for heat exchange to occur. This leads to cooling of the gas.
      Does the temperature increase in Adiabatic Expansion?
      No, temperature does not increase during adiabatic expansion. Instead, it decreases because the gas does work on its surroundings without intake of heat, causing its internal energy and therefore temperature to decrease.
      Is adiabatic expansion exothermic?
      No, adiabatic expansion is not exothermic. Instead, it is an endothermic process, meaning it requires heat. During adiabatic expansion, the system does work on the surroundings and its internal energy decreases, causing the system to cool.
      Save Article

      Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

      How does the process of adiabatic compression take place and is it different from adiabatic expansion?

      What principle is the backbone of thermal, mechanical, chemical, and material engineering courses?

      How does the vapour compression cycle in refrigeration and air conditioning units utilise adiabatic expansion?

      Next

      Discover learning materials with the free StudySmarter app

      Sign up for free
      1
      About StudySmarter

      StudySmarter is a globally recognized educational technology company, offering a holistic learning platform designed for students of all ages and educational levels. Our platform provides learning support for a wide range of subjects, including STEM, Social Sciences, and Languages and also helps students to successfully master various tests and exams worldwide, such as GCSE, A Level, SAT, ACT, Abitur, and more. We offer an extensive library of learning materials, including interactive flashcards, comprehensive textbook solutions, and detailed explanations. The cutting-edge technology and tools we provide help students create their own learning materials. StudySmarter’s content is not only expert-verified but also regularly updated to ensure accuracy and relevance.

      Learn more
      StudySmarter Editorial Team

      Team Engineering Teachers

      • 19 minutes reading time
      • Checked by StudySmarter Editorial Team
      Save Explanation Save Explanation

      Study anywhere. Anytime.Across all devices.

      Sign-up for free

      Sign up to highlight and take notes. It’s 100% free.

      Join over 22 million students in learning with our StudySmarter App

      The first learning app that truly has everything you need to ace your exams in one place

      • Flashcards & Quizzes
      • AI Study Assistant
      • Study Planner
      • Mock-Exams
      • Smart Note-Taking
      Join over 22 million students in learning with our StudySmarter App
      Sign up with Email