Throughout history, empires have risen and fallen in many circumstances. To understand how and why an empire declines, it is first imperative to understand what an empire is and how it functions. What can cause such a vast empire to fall such as the Ottoman Empire which extended over three continents at its peak?
Fig. 1:Ottoman Empire and Vassal States 16th&17th centuries
Empires Summary
The chart below gives a few examples of famous empires and the causes attributed to their demise.
An Empire is characterized as a region with central power influencing other territories, most often with the use of military, religion, economy, and culture.
| Empire | Threats | Downfall |
| Egypt | - Persians
- Syrians
- Alexander the Great
- Rome
| - Christianity and Islam
- Deaths of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
|
| Rome | - Plague
- Famine (crop failure)
- Earthquakes
- Volcanos
- The Huns
- Hannibal
| - The Turks conquer Constantinople
- Nero sets Rome on Fire
- Mass Migration from Scandinavia
|
| Byzantine | - Bubonic Plague
- Charlemagne
- The Crusades
| - Venice
- The Ottomans (Sultan Mehmet)
- Rise of Islam
|
| Ottoman | - Discontent between Muslim Dynasties
- Fight for control of Jerusalem
| - Internal Power struggles: fratricides and patricides
- Financial competition from the Americas
- World War I
|
| British | - France
- Over Expansion
- Discontented Colonies seeking Independence
- WWI and WWII
| - American Revolution
- India's Independence (revitalizing their own internal industries and economy)
- China securing Hong Kong
|
| American | - Globalization (unification of other powers)
- Conflict with Russia, China, and the Middle East
- Internal Political Division (the Right vs the Left)
| - The American Empire is considered ongoing
|
Patterns in Empires
While each empire is unique, historically, there are some major consistencies among societies and countries that rose to power. Below are four common themes in imperial governments.
- A monopolization of territory, (particularly with valuable resources, transport, and trade routes).
- A strong military presence.
- An influential culture/religion.
- Building lasting monuments/landmarks.
Egyptian Empire
Lacking one of these main characteristics of a successful empire often resulted in its downfall. For example, in its final days, the Egyptians did not have the military prowess to continue pushing Rome back, so instead, Cleopatra sought a strategic alliance with Julius Caesar. They were able to avoid war for a short time until the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesar.
Fig. 2 Puck Magazine 1884, shows El Mahdi in Egypt and Sudan
The Lifespan of an Empire
According to John Bagot Glubb in his 1978 book The Fate of Empires and the Search for Survival, the average span of an empire is 250 years. Glubb lived through both World Wars and spent much of his career serving in the Middle East. He is a controversial character, as he was a British soldier not only exerting influence in Arabic matters but also studying and writing about them in his many books.1
The lifespan of an Empire can generally be broken down into seven stages:
- Outburst: A group of people becomes unified in a shared need or cause, often under a charismatic or influential leader.
- Conquest: The new nation must establish strength by conquering and/or consolidating territories (colonization is common in this stage).
- Commerce: Now that the nation has an established territory, it must expand monetarily by utilizing resources and trade to foster wealth.
- Affluence: The empire invests in its own infrastructure, and an improving economy benefits people across the territories.
- Intellect: The cultural progress of the empire expands past wealth, into innovation (science, education, technology, and art).
- Decadence: An age of complacency when the state often falls into debt, neglecting the lessons learned in the foundation of the empire.
- Decline: The previous power is subverted as a new influence rises (either by internal revolution or an external group conquering).
Fig. 3 Cole Thomas' The Course of Empire Destruction 1836
In his article 5 Stage Lifecycle, David Murrin presents the growth and eventual collapse of empires as a bell curve. He follows a similar timeline as the 7-stage cycle but combines 'conquest' and 'commerce' together under the umbrella of 'Ascension', and 'affluence' and 'intellect' under 'Maturity'.2
Reasons for Decline of Empires
Empires decline for a few key reasons, the first being that society has expanded so much it can no longer sustain itself and exert control over all of its territories. A large civilization produces opposition and must combat invading countries.
Economic Decline of Empires
The constant expansion of an Empire was often its downfall. Financial crises were common as the empire expansion meant spending money on wars to conquer others, allocating money needed to try and sustain this new territory, and overspending on unimportant elements. Historian David Hackett Fischer theorizes that economic failure creates social distress and inflation, producing unrest and conflict throughout the Empire, and leading to its demise.3
Fig. 4 Economy illustration 1902
Economic Decline
The Gupta dynasty endured multiple invasions around 450 CE, these military attacks put a severe strain on economic resources and began the decline of this empire.
Natural Causes and the Decline of Empires
But not all reasons behind the decline of an Empire were man-made, often natural disasters contributed to the downfall of an empire, showing us just how fragile the success of an Empire's reign was.
Natural Causes
Byzantium had an epidemic: the bubonic plague came to Constantinople.
Internal Division of Empires
History proves that peace and unity among an Empire were crucial to its success and a very common reason for its downfall.
Internal Division
Fig. 5 American Civil War Montage
Political Enemies and the Decline of Empires
Empires were designed to give a national power and control over others, so it is no surprise that causes of the decline of empires are often due to their fight to be the most powerful. A few examples of political and military warfare between enemies are as follows:
Political Enemies
Egypt was invaded by the desert nomads, Persians, Syrians, and Alexander the Great.
The French Revolution destabilized the Christian Church's influence in Europe (and Charlemagne's power as a result), and this paved the way for Napoleon to rise to power, and to 'conquer' the Holy Roman Empire.
The Crusades threatened the Ottoman Empire, and a warrior named Saladin fought and defeated them in the Middle East.
France frequently threatened the British Empire (Battle of Trafalgar, Battle of Waterloo), especially during the American and French Revolutions.
The American Empire fought with Mexico and slowly took many of its territories, like California, Nevada, Utah, and the majority of New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado.
Decline of Empires Examples
Let's have a closer look into what caused the downfall of some of the Empires we have already mentioned!
Decline of French and British Empires
The British empire began with overseas settlements in the 16th century, increasing British maritime expansion during the next century. Settlements in the West Indies and North America marked the beginning of the British Empire: a worldwide system of territories under the control of the British government.
The first French Empire was also rising in the 16th and 17th centuries, they quickly became competitors as they were colonizing empires.
Fig.6 British Empire in America Illustration
The North American colonies in the 18th century saw French and British conflict after the British military succeeded in expanding their empire into Canada and India. Britain was victorious and the Treaty of Paris 1763 resulted in their dominance over Canada and ensured their supremacy over France in India.
Decline of the British Empire
The 20th century saw the demise of the British Empire. Here's why:
- The creation of dominions, like Canada, which in 1907 still held allegiance to the British Empire but were given independence in their governments.
- States that became dominions quickly became known as the British Commonwealth of Nations.
- With this newly formed Commonwealth came a spread of nationalism, and independence grants which started in India in 1947.
- The rise in nationalism meant the end of imperialism for the British Empire, and by the 1960s Britain no longer had sufficient controlled colonies to be seen as an empire.
- Economic failure after WWI and WWII.
Decline of the French Empire
The French Empire also saw its beginning to an end during WWII as its empire was being occupied by its foreign competitors of Japan, Britain, and Germany. Decolonization began with Vietnam's independence and the 1945 French defeat and subsequent retreat from Vietnam. This continued and by 1962, Alergia was also declared independent. The economy of France had begun to collapse. With a growing population came a thinly stretched food supply, and the long winter of 1788 created agricultural struggles and nationwide starvation. These bad conditions led to riots across the Empire and weakened its structure, eventually ending the French Empire on September 4, 1870.
Which of our four main reasons for declining Empires do you think contributed to the decline of the French Empire?
Decline of Gunpowder Empires
Also known individually as the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, the Gunpowder Empire was one of the three Empires to emerge in Euroasia.
Fig. 7 Gunpowder Empire Illustration
Did you know?
The Gunpowder Empires were named after their monopolization of guns and artillery and their dependence on firearms for success.
Gunpowder Empires
The Ottoman Empire
Founded by Muslim Turks in around 1299 and known for being one of the longest-living empires, it once ruled over Egypt, Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Lebanon, North Africa and more! Focused on expanding the Islamic religion and the Empire's power and influence, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire was rapid. Due to its reduction of military and economic power over Europe in the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. By the time of its defeat in WWI, the Ottoman Empire ended.
Safavid Empire
The Ottoman Empire outlawed Shi'a Islam in their region, resulting in the 1501 Safavid Shah's declaration of independence. This marked, and strengthened the beginning of the Safavid Empire as the persecution of Shi'a followers pushed out people and soldiers from the Ottoman Empire. The Safavid Empire expanded through the 16th and 17th centuries, eventually covering Iraq and Iran. The Russians and Ottomans and their seizing of territories in Iran caused the end of the Safavid Empire in 1736.
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was established by Sultan Baur after his victory in 1562 over the Lodhi Sultan. In true Gunpowder Empire style, he used 20 cannons to defeat his enemy which was twice the size of his own troops. After conquering Punjab and expanding their rule over northern India, the Mughal Empire began seeing an emergence of regional powers, deterioration of land relations, and Aurangzeb's Deccan campaign. The Mughal Empire ended in 1857 and the British Raj replaced the Mughal dynasty.
Aurangzeb's Deccan Campaign
Aurangzeb's 1681 campaign to conquer the Martha Empire. After arriving in Aurangabad, Aurangzeb made Deccan his capital. His policy failed in subduing the Marathas and he died in Deccan in 1707.
Decline Of Empires - Key takeaways
- Successful Empires are commonly seen to have: a monopolization of territory, a strong military presence, an influential culture/religion, and lasting monuments or landmarks.
- The decline of Empires can be simplified down to one or a combination of four key reasons: economic failure, political enemies, Internal division, and natural causes.
- Economic failure can be argued to be the most common factor in the decline of Empires due to the nature of Empires and their tendency to expand rapidly, leaving them with an abundance of land and a financial burden.
- The Ottoman Empire was one of the longest living Empires, one of the Gunpowders Empires, and fell due to a reduction in military power and economic failure.
- Colonial Empires, the British and French Empires were both expanding during the 16th and 17th centuries and were competitors in their expansion. Both Empires declined due to multiple of the four key reasons which left their empires weak and open to both nationalism and independence.
References
- John Bagot Glubb, (1978). The Fate of Empires and the search for survival.
- David Murrin, (2016) 5 Stage Lifecycle.
- David Hackett Fischer, (1996). The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History.
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