When the Mongol Empire invaded a foreign territory, chances were that the defending population either submitted to the Khan's might or faced punishment for their impunity. Entire kingdoms fell at a Mongol Khan's will, but in the case of the Majapahit Empire, a kingdom rose from a Mongol invasion. Outsmarted, outmaneuvered, and none-too-pleased with tropical weather, the Yuan Dynasty Mongols fled with their tails between their legs. At the same time, Javanese Prince Raden Wijaya worked on establishing the Majapahit Empire.
Majapahit Empire Importance
Based in Java, the Majapahit Empire presided over much of the Indonesian Archipelago. Following the tested traditions of the Srivijaya Empire, Majapahit was a tributary maritime empire, though its more expansive scope stretched from the Strait of Malacca to New Guinea. The Majapahit Empire ruled over the Java Sea from 1293 to 1527 as a solid commercial empire outpaced by the changing world. Faithful to Buddhism, Hinduism, and the regional Kejawen (Javanese) religion, the Majapahit would soon face significant threats waving the sigils of Christianity and Islam.
Fig. 1 Map of the Majapahit Empire during the 14th century.
The Majapahit Empire ruled over many vassal states (some historians estimate as many as ninety), including Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. As a tributary state, it exacted annual cash taxations (gold and silver coins) from its vassals and, in exchange, provided infrastructure (transportation and irrigation) and protection to its loyal constituents. Agriculture and trade control, primarily through the Strait of Malacca, fueled the Majapahit Empire and its navy of jongs.
Jong:
Primary warship and transport ship of the Majapahit Empire. Jongs varied in size, but some could ferry up to an average of 500 men and up to 2,000 tons of cargo.
Majapahit Empire Timeline
The Majapahit Empire is notable for its place in the timeline of world history, an empire that oversaw Indonesia's transition from the Medieval Era to the Early Modern Era. The timeline below displays a brief progression of events important to the rise and fall of the Majapahit Empire:
- January 1293: Mongolian Yuan Dynasty forces depart China to invade Java in Indonesia.
- November 1293: Raden Wilaya is coronated as ruler of the newly established Majapahit Empire, naming himself Kertarajasa Jayawardhana.
- 1309: Raden Wilaya dies.
- 1328: Raden Wijaya's successor is killed, and Dyah Gitarja inherits the throne as Queen Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani
- 1350-1389: Majapahit reaches its golden age of wealth and expansionism under ruler Hayam Wuruk and his prime minister Gajah Mada.
- 1405-1406: The Regreg War ensues, a civil war of succession that cripples Majapahit.
- 1511: Malacca is captured by the Portuguese.
- 1527: Pressure from the Demak Sultanate leads to the disintegration of the Majapahit Empire.
Majapahit Empire Government
A Chakravartin ruled the Majapahit Empire, a Hindu and Buddhist-inspired universal ruler possessing divinely ordained authority. Beneath the Chakravartin worked a class of advisors and bureaucrats led by a prime minister called a Rakryan Marathi. Together, the Chakravartin and Rakryan Mapatih led Majapahit through peace and war.
Chakravartin:
A universal political ruler in Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Majapahit Empire Founding
As previously mentioned, the Majapahit Empire and its first Chakravartin ascended from the chaos of a Mongol Yuan Dynasty invasion. It all began when the Javanese ruler Kertanegara of Singhasari openly denied Kublai Khan's request for tribute, a slap in the face of perhaps the most powerful man on the planet. During the Yuan Dynasty, Khan dispatched thousands of ships to enact his vengeance. Before the Mongols arrived, however, Kertanegara was killed by a rival named Jayakatwang, who captured and pardoned Kertanegara's princely son, Raden Wijaya.
Fig. 2- Art depicting the Yuan Dynasty invasion fleet sailing toward Indonesia.
Jayakatwang exiled Raden Wijaya to Trowulan in East Java, where the prince was expected to sit and wait out the Mongol invasion. Instead, Raden Wijaya made contact with the Mongols and openly joined their cause, leading the invaders to victory against Jayakatwang. Gaining popularity and support through his successes, Raden Wijaya garnered a following that he used to betray the Mongols then, damaging their fleet and sending them sailing for the horizon.
Ever wonder where the name "Majapahit" comes from? Are you an aspiring Etymologist? Per Javanese naming conventions, settlements were named after indigenous fruits in the region. Raden Wijaya established a settlement in East Java during his gentle exile, naming it Majapahit; "maja" refers to a kind of fruit near the settlement, and "pahit" means bitter, describing the fruit. You are currently learning about the mighty "bitter fruit" empire!
Confused and lacking in morale, the Mongol warriors sailed home with the monsoon winds before the monsoon season ended. The Mongols had been repelled, and Raden Wijaya's enemies were defeated. In that same year of 1293, he declared himself Kertarajasa Jayawardhana, ruler of the fledgling Majapahit Empire. Raden Wijaya ruled from 1293 to 1309, the first sixteen years of Majapahit rule in Java.
Role Of Women In Majapahit Empire
Women played an essential role in the Majapahit Empire, so much so that we might as well change "role" to "rule". The Majapahit Empire had two different female rulers in its history, including:
Dyah Gitarja (Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani), daughter of Raden Wijaya, ruled from 1328 to 1350 during great imperial expansionism.
Queen Suhita ruled as a regent from 1429 to 1447.
Otherwise, quite a few women acted as concubines to rulers and administrators in the Majapahit Empire or played active roles in everyday agricultural life, enjoying many rights and freedoms.
Majapahit Empire Historiography:
As with the discussion of just how influential the Majapahit Empire was in the entire Indonesian Archipelago, historians still debate specific dates and events regarding the Majapahit Empire's history. General facts and dates, such as rulers and when they reigned, are accepted by most historians. Still, an air of doubt (some would call it an opportunity!) lies within the general narrative used to discuss Majapahit history. Why is that?
The Majapahit Empire is well over 500 years old, an empire hailing from a land of radical change throughout the centuries following its decline. Although written texts and verbal accounts of Majapahit history exist, Southeast Asian writers often mixed fact with fiction, constructing fantastic tales as the real world spanned around them. More "reliable" accounts come from European and Chinese narrators, who recorded detailed accounts of Majapahit society from an outsider's point of view.
Such was the case with Portuguese conqueror Alfonso de Albuquerque, who wrote to Portuguese King Manuel I in 1512 regarding Southeast Asia;
"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gom, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other..."2
Majapahit Empire Significance
Under Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada, Majapahit experienced a golden age of imperial expansionism and economic prosperity. Hayam Wuruk's role preceded Ming Admiral Zheng He's infamous 15th-century voyages into Southeast Asia and beyond. But civil war wracked the empire around the same time, making bare Majapahit's weaknesses in decentralization and administration an entire century before its fall. Yet why is the Majapahit Empire significant and studied so curiously by historians?
Fig. 3- Majapahit building in Trowulan, East Java.
Firstly, it should be noted that the Majapahit Empire was the largest in Southeast Asian history. Ruling over such a vast expanse of islands is no small feat, especially when the threat of Mongols, Islamic Sultanates, and European invaders continued to test Majapahit's strength. The Demak Sultanate (the first Islamic state in Java) sacked the Majapahit city of Daha in 1527, not long after the Portuguese captured Malacca in 1511. Although the Majapahit fell because of foreign pressure, the empire represented the strength of indigenous Southeast Asian rule for over 200 years.
Effects Of The Majapahit Empire
The Majapahit Empire, like the Srivijaya Empire, oversaw extensive trade through the Strait of Malacca, a strait that connected the Indian Ocean Trade with the Chinese seas. All wealth of goods that sailed between India and China during the end of the Medieval Era and the beginning of the Early Modern Period were policed by Majapahit jongs. The effects of Majapahit culture and art persist within Java today, symbolized by the few yet still-standing remains of the Majapahit Empire.
Majapahit Empire - Key takeaways
- The Majapahit Empire ruled from 1293 to 1527 from its capital Trowulan in Java, extending its tributary imperial sphere of influence over much of the Indonesian Archipelago.
- The Majapahit Empire ruled over the Strait of Malacca, controlling sea trade between India and China. At the same time, it became a target for Portuguese maritime expansionism and the Islamic Demak Sultanate due to its geographical significance.
- The Majapahit Empire rose from within a Mongol Yuan Dynasty invasion when its founder Raden Wijaya manipulated the Mongol forces into defeating his enemies before betraying them.
- The Majapahit Empire was ruled by queens on two separate occasions, exemplifying a significant level of power held by females within Majapahit society.
References
- Fig. 1 Majapahit Empire Map (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Majapahit_Empire.svg) by Gunawan Kartapranata (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Gunkarta), licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en).
- Carta IX, 1 April 1512. In Pato, Raymundo Antonio de Bulhão (1884). Cartas de Affonso de Albuquerque, Seguidas de Documentos que as Elucidam tomo I (pp. 29–65). Lisboa: Typographia da Academia Real das Sciencas. p. 64.
- Fig 3 Majapahit Building (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Situs_Trowulan_KKK_1.jpg) by Muhamad Abdu (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Muhamad_Abdu&action=edit&redlink=1), licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en).
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