Often overshadowed by the rise of European colonialism, the Aztec Empire was at the height of its power in the 15th century. The Aztecs were not just a handful of feather-adorned warriors committing human sacrifice; they were an empire 11 million strong, with their own culture, religion, class systems, art, and science. Who were the Aztecs, then, and how did such a prominent world empire fall into relative historical obscurity so quickly?
Aztec Empire Timeline
The following list provides a brief progression of events regarding the Aztec Empire:
1325: The Aztec capital Tenochtitlan is established.
1428: The Aztec Triple Alliance is formed.
1519: Conquistadors arrive in the Americas.
1521: Tenochtitlan is besieged and destroyed.
The Aztec Empire
Before the Aztecs, Mesoamerica was ruled by warring city-states called altepetl, each with a ruler called a tlatoani. Agricultural development and aggressive expansion were the chief aims of these individual city-states until the growing Aztec Empire overpowered them.
Already confused by the ancient terminology? There is a handy definitions table at the end of this article
Map of Aztec Empire. Source: Badseed, CC-BY-SA-2.5,2.0,1.0, Wikimedia Commons.
Founding of the Aztec Empire
The origin of the Aztec people lies somewhat in myth. According to legend, a group of northern Mesoamerican people migrated south from a semi-mythical land called Aztlan. Guided by a prophecy from their god Huitzilopochtli (Aztec god of the sun, war, and sacrifice), the people found a sign: a giant eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake.
The Aztecs called themselves the Mexica:
The people of 14th century Mesoamerica spoke a language called Nahuatl. When the people from Aztlan landed in Tenochtitlan, they renamed the land and themselves in dedication to Huitzilopochtli. The name 'Mexica' roughly means 'sons of Huitzilopochtli', so they referred to themselves as the Mexica. It was not until European historians derived the name 'Aztec' from 'people of Aztlan', that the Nahuatl-speaking people of Mesoamerica became known as the Aztecs.
In 1325, this group of migrating people settled here, calling their new settlement Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan was based within five interconnected lakes and eventually developed to become the administrative and cultural center for the entire Aztec Empire during its reign in Mesoamerica.
Rise of the Aztec Empire
After a war of unification in Mesoamerica between many altepemeh (plural of altepetl, the city-states), the Aztec Triple Alliance was formed between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan in 1428. The alliance continued to grow in power, conquering neighboring territories. Tenochtitlan became the capital of a quickly rising empire.
Aztec Painting. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
The Aztecs conquered through military might and political maneuvers. The Aztec warriors (the elites in Aztec society) were fearsome in battle, led by clever military strategists. Those warriors captured in a defeat were often sacrificed. Marriages, alliances, and fear of conquest brought many city-states into the Aztecan fold.
If the European discovery had been delayed for a century or two, it is possible that the Aztec in Mexico or the Iroquois in North America would have established strong native states capable of adopting European war tactics and maintaining their independence to this day, as Japan kept her independence from China.
-Historian Samuel Eliot Morison
Once an altepetl was absorbed by the Aztecs, they were expected to provide a tribute of goods and sacrifices to Tenochtitlan but were otherwise left alone. Roads were built across the Aztec Empire, tightening trade between cities. Tenochtitlan swelled in population to roughly 200,000 people, about the same size as Paris across the Atlantic Ocean.
Painting of an Aztec sacrifice. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Aztec society flourished. A class system developed, including rulers, nobles, serfs, servants, and slaves. Great pyramids were erected, upon which many thousands of ritual sacrifices were conducted in favor of the gods, including decapitation and heart removal. An estimated 20,000 people a year were sacrificed in the Aztec Empire, during an otherwise period of great cultural, artistic, and scientific growth.
Floating Gardens:
To feed their growing population, the Aztecs built chinampas (floating gardens in Nahuatl). The city of Tenochtitlan was beset by five large, connected lakes. To make up for the lack of land, the Aztecs constructed large, rectangular rafts from woven sticks and piles of mud. They anchored the rafts to other rafts, or to the lake floor, allowing room for canoes to paddle between. On over 20,000 acres of floating land, the Aztecs planted corn, squash, tomatoes, and flowers. The floating gardens were a very effective feat of engineering capable of feeding an empire.
Fall of the Aztec Empire
Hernan Cortes arrived on the shores of Central America in 1519 with 600 conquistadors under him. He was in search of gold and other riches in the New World. Arriving at the gates of Tenochtitlan, Cortes was not disappointed. Seeing the shining armor and horses of Cortes and his Spanish companions, the Aztec leader Montezuma II offered them a warm welcome and many gifts, some of which were gold.
Fig. 4- Art depicting Montezuma meeting Hernan Cortez.
Military Conquest
The situation escalated very quickly. Cortez took Montezuma II, the religious leader of the Aztec people, hostage within his own court. Threatening the life of the Aztec leader, Cortez issued a set of demands to the people of Tenochtitlan. Tensions rose and Cortes was forced to evacuate the city, but he already had other plans in motion.
Montezuma II:
Also known as Moctezuma (and a host of other spellings), Montezuma II was the ninth and (almost) last Aztec ruler. He reigned from 1502 to 1520, inheriting the Aztec Empire at its height. Although Montezuma II was a great warrior and military strategist, he became much disliked by Aztec neighbors and vassal states throughout his reign, due to calls for excessive sacrifice. Historians debate Montezuma II's perception of Hernan Cortes. Some historians say that Montezuma II saw Cortes as a god-like figure, a deity called Quetzalcoatl. Then, there is debate if Quetzalcoatl even existed in Aztec mythology, or if the deity was introduced through Cortes. Other historians believe that Montezuma II simply saw a powerful ally in Cortes and welcomed the conquistador accordingly. Whatever Montezuma II really believed; it did not end well for him.
The Aztecs had ruled over their resentful neighbors and vassal states through imperial might. Cortes inspired the enemies of the Aztec Empire to stand against their oppressors (and if they denied, Cortes had his own military might to dispense). In August 1521, Tenochtitlan fell to a lengthy siege by Cortes and his Mesoamerican allies.
Disease in the New World
Cortes's greatest weapon, however, was unintentional. Traveling over the Atlantic Ocean, the Spaniards carried with them diseases that the Mesoamericans had never been exposed to. During the siege of Tenochtitlan, many of the inhabitants had fallen ill to smallpox and other European afflictions. The native population of Mesoamerica was about 20 million in 1520. In 1580, the population fell to less than 2 million.
Aztecs Calendar
Testament to the significance of Aztec culture is their two-calendar system. The calendar cycles were deeply connected to the Aztec religion, dictating the quality of harvests and the sacrifices necessary to make those harvests successful.
An Aztec sun stone. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
The first calendar, the Tonalpohualli, covered a 260-day cycle (length of time between the appearance of Venus in the sky, the length of Aztec harvest cycles). The second calendar, the Xiuhpohualli was a 365-day cycle, each day representing a different god or religious festival. Notably, the Aztecs did not account for leap years, so their calendars slowly fell out of sync with the movement of the earth around the sun.
Aztec Definitions Chart
The chart below provides definitions for all of the Nahuatl vocabulary used in this article.
| Word | Definition |
| Huitzilopochtli | Aztec god of sun, war, and sacrifice |
| altepetl | Mesoamerican city-state |
| tlatoani | Ruler of a city-state |
| Tenochtitlan | Capital of the Aztec Empire |
| chinampas | Floating gardens |
| Tonalpohualli | Aztec 260-day calendar |
| Xiuhpohualli | Aztec 360-day calendar |
Aztecs - Key takeaways
- Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was founded in 1325.
- For most of the 14th and 15th centuries, the religious Aztec people dominated Mesoamerica through military might, committing thousands of sacrifices to satisfy their gods.
- In 1519, Hernan Cortes arrived in Mesoamerica. He introduced political turmoil and disease to the Aztec Empire, leading to its fall in 1521.
- The Aztec calendars stand as a testament to the significant merging of culture and science in a fascinating, pre-colonial Central American empire.
References
- Fig. 1 Aztec Empire Map (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png) by Badseed (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Badseed), licensed by https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:CC-BY-SA-2.5,2.0,1.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0/, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/).
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