Medieval India

The history of Medieval India can be complex, especially when considering the multitude of dynasties, ethnic groups, migrations, warring states, religious transfusion, caste systems, and foreign invasions (both defensive and offensive). Yet the history of Medieval India is also exciting, containing many tales of religious devotion, cultural transformation, political marriages, and betrayal. Despite rapid change and infighting, Medieval India resisted the 13th century Mongol invasions of Genghis Khan and his direct predecessors; one of the few lands to do so. But how?

Medieval India Map

The map below represents the territorial partitions of modern-day India, a useful tool for analyzing the geography and proximity of India to the greater Medieval World. Additionally, modern maps help historians and teachers explain to audiences where ancient and medieval societies developed, expanded, and fell. Some names are enduring, such as Gujarat in Western India (more on the Gujaras later!).

Fig. 1- Map of modern-day India.

The importance of geography in Medieval India's history cannot be underestimated. The Indus and Ganges rivers that flow throughout Northern India sustained the development of some of humanity's earliest civilizations, perhaps as early as 3000 BCE. India itself is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent, a classification that highlights the land's size and importance within greater Eurasia. Many civilizations would soon rise in the south on the Deccan Plateau in central peninsular India.

The Himalayan Mountains to India's north acted as a natural barrier to invading forces throughout Medieval history, forcing prospecting warlords to invade either through modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh, or parts of Nepal. Giving its name to the vast Indian Ocean, India has always enjoyed maritime sea trade with the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and beyond. On land, Northern India bordered China and the Middle East, connecting the seemingly separated lands of the Medieval world.

Medieval India Timeline

Generally, the history of Medieval India is separated into two periods: the Early Medieval Period (6th century to 13th century) and Late Medieval Period (13th century to 1526). The timeline below offers a brief overview of dates and events important to Medieval Indian history.

• 6th century CE: The fall of the Gupta Empire, ending India's Classical Era.
• 712 CE: Muhammed ibn al-Qasim leads Arabic forces in the Umayyad invasion of India, conquering Indian land and beginning the history of Islamic rule in the subcontinent.
• 6th century to 12th century CE: Period encompassing the rise of Rajput Kingdoms within India.
• 750-900 CE: The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas vie for power in the Kannauj Triangle.
• 11th century: The Chola Empire invades Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
• 1206 CE: Mamluk General Qutb al-Din Aibak establishes the Mamluk Sultanate in Northern India, beginning the reign of the Delhi Sultanate.
• 1221 CE: Genghis Khan probes India for invasion but retreats, never to return.
• 1336: The Vijayanagara Empire is founded in Southern India.
• 1398: Timur the Lame leads his armies in sacking the city of Delhi.
• 1526: The Indian Mughal Empire is established by a descendent of Timur the Lame, marking the end of Medieval India and the beginning of India's history in the Early Modern Period.

Early Medieval Period in India

Early Medieval Indian history began with the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. Almost immediately, prospective Indian rulers rose in attempt to expand their empires and reunify India once more. It would not be until the Mughal Empire of the Early Modern Period (1450-1750) that India realized a lasting unification, with a thousand years of struggle between.

Fig. 2- 11th century temple in Karnakata, India.

States in Medieval India

The Rajput Kingdoms and various Dynastical Empires dominated Early Medieval India. Rajput Kingdoms were patrilineal clans led by warrior kings. From peasant roots, the Rajputs established their own small states throughout Northern India. The Rajput identity encompassed its very own social class within later Indian society. Meanwhile, the dynastical empires were larger, monarchal institutions ruled by elites.

Life in Medieval India

Political turmoil wracked Medieval India; regions seemingly passed from one dynasty to another every few centuries. Life persisted, however, with communities identifying perhaps more with their religious beliefs than the political states that casted a shadow over them. Buddhism declined in India during this time, supplanted by the ever-influential Hinduism.

Written texts increased in volume during Medieval India along with increased use of Sanskrit, as seen in Pallava Dynasty inscriptions. Contrary to popular belief, the Hindu Caste System did not define society during Early Medieval India. Under the Rajput Kingdoms and political distress of warring dynasties, strict social boundaries loosened.

Economy in Medieval India

Medieval Indian economy flourished. Sustained by strong agrarian communities in the Indus Valley and beyond, an extensive land and overseas trade network only further supported a strong and developing economy in Medieval India. Early Medieval India engaged in a "north-south" trade with Central Asia and beyond, providing Indian supplies and goods to the trade network of the Silk Road and nomadic communities beyond. India imported items from all across Eurasia, ranging from various breeds of horses to silk, jade, jewelry, Persian textiles, and porcelain.

Fig. 3- Medieval Indian relief located in Southeast India.

Later Medieval Period in India

The history of Later Medieval India begins in the early 13th century with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by a Mamluk general named Qutb al-Din Aibak. The Delhi Sultanate was definitively Islamic in an otherwise Hindu-dominated region. Islamic rule had begun in India, and it would not leave for many centuries.

Invasions of Later Medieval India

The Delhi Sultanate would rule from 1206 to 1526, waxing and waning against dozens of Arabic and Turkic invasions. The Delhi Sultanate resisted the likes of Genghis Khan in the early 13th century, less than two decades after its establishment. Genghis Khan's descendants would try their own hand at invading India by the end of he 13th century, also failing. Only Timur the Lame was successful in taking the city of Delhi, but each invasion directed more foreign influence and attention towards the elusive land of India.

Important Woman Ruler of Medieval India

The daughter of a Mamluk general and Delhi sultan, Razia Sultana became the first female Islamic ruler of both the Delhi Sultanate and India itself. After maneuvering her way to the throne, Razia surprised enemies and allies alike in displaying her self-sufficiency and intentions to stay in power. Her reign lasted from 1236 to 1240, ending abruptly after her half-brother deposed her to claim power for himself. She died that same year, but not before establishing the precedent of rare womanly rule within Medieval India.

Fig. 4- Delhi Sultanate coins that would have been printed during the reign of Razia Sultana.

The End of Medieval India

The fall of the Delhi Sultanate coincides with the end of Medieval India. Babur, descendent of Timur, brought an overwhelming Islamic Turkic army into northern India and ended the resilient sultanate once and for all. But imperial rule in Medieval India did not end here. Babur established the mighty Mughal Empire, a lasting dynasty that would unite Early Modern India into perhaps the most militaristically and economically powerful nation in the world.