Spanish Maritime Empire

Of the European maritime empires of the 15th to 18th centuries, the Spanish Empire was perhaps the strongest during the first half of maritime supremacy. Commanding a massive armada, extreme wealth, and brutally efficient colonization methods, the Spanish Empire rapidly expanded during the 16th century, controlling territories across the globe. But how had the Spanish Maritime Empire expanded so quickly and efficiently when it faced such fierce competition from the English, French, Dutch, and their Iberian neighbor, the Portuguese?

Spanish Imperialism

The history of Spanish maritime imperialism begins with an Italian. Financed by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus was given his long-awaited chance to travel west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a new route to India. In 1492, Columbus did not find a new route to India but an entirely new continent unknown to the Europeans at the time; he discovered America.

Through Columbus, Spain was given a head start in its colonial efforts. Only two years after the Europeans discovered America, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, essentially dividing America between them.

Named after Christopher Columbus, the Columbian Exchange saw plants, animals, technology, and especially diseases cross between the New World and Old World (America and Europe). The diseases brought to America were particularly devastating, wiping out large portions of the indigenous populations and destabilizing their societies.

Conquistadors of the Spanish Maritime Empire

In the early 16th century, two wealth-seeking Spaniards sailed for the New World with small military forces. Named Conquistadores (translated as "conquerors"), these exploratory soldiers rallied local resistance movements against the two greatest empires in South and Central America.

Hernan Cortez and the Aztec Empire

Conquistador Hernan Cortez led the first Spanish force into the mighty Aztec Empire, eventually arriving in the splendorous capital Tenochtitlan. Intent on acquiring gold and fame, Cortez led a siege on Tenochtitlan that ended in 1521 with the fall of the Aztec capital. Ravaged by infighting, disease, and hunger, the Aztec Empire fell.

Francisco Pizzaro and the Incan Empire

Inspired by Cortez, Conquistador Francisco Pizzaro made his expedition into the New World. Traveling to the Incan Empire on the West Coast of South America with less than 200 men, Pizarro managed to capture the Incan ruler and use him as a puppet to destabilize the empire. By 1532, the Incan Empire was brought to destruction, and the Americas were open to further imperialistic efforts by the Spanish Empire.

Spanish Maritime Empire Technology

Many historians claim that Spain possessed the greatest navy of the European maritime empires during the first half of the Early Modern Period (1450-1750). But how did Spain develop such an impressive navy? Firstly, the Spanish owe thanks to their Iberian neighbor, Portugal.

The Portuguese designed the caravel, a highly maneuverable ship utilizing lateen sails (triangular sails) to better catch the wind. The much larger Portuguese carrack ship, often used in the Mediterranean Sea Trade, inspired two Spanish captains to design the galleon, the primary warship of the Spanish armada that could both transfer cargo and pack a 60-cannon punch.

Fig. 3 - Model of a Spanish galleon warship.

Spain didn't just owe its maritime success to Portugal, but also to the Islamic inventors of the Middle East. From the Islamic Caliphates and Turks came innovations in astronomy and navigation, compass technology, mathematics, and of course, weaponry. Developments in rifle and cannon technology from the Middle East were soon incorporated into the Spanish military, giving Spain the strength it needed to combat its European enemies and conquer much of South America.

Spanish Empire at its Peak

The reign of Spanish King Philip II (ruled 1556-1598) saw the Spanish Empire reach its peak. In the late 16th century, Spain controlled territories in North America and South America, Africa, Asia, and Europe. They traded with the powerful Ming Dynasty in China and crushed colonial rebellions across the globe.

But the height of the Spanish Empire's maritime domination would be short-lived. In a dispute over the Netherlands in 1588, King Phillip II decided to crush the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England. The impressive Spanish Armada, a fleet of over 150 ships and thousands of sailors, departed Lisbon for England. Unfortunately for the Spanish, an equally tempestuous storm, often called the "Protestant Winds," raged across the sea during the fleet's voyage. The Spanish fleet was ravaged, sparing and allowing England to rise to maritime dominance.

Colonies of the Spanish Empire

Across its history, Spain controlled as many as 35 colonies across the world. Although Spain did hold territories in the Philippines and Europe, it was from the New World colonies that Spain would generate most of its wealth and power. Spain had colonies in modern-day Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Jamaica, Panama, Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, the U.S. South–from California to Florida–and more. All of South America, except Brazil and the Caribbean, was primarily dominated by the Spanish Maritime Empire up to the 18th and 19th centuries.

Spanish Maritime Empire Colonialism in the New World

With the native populations greatly diminished due to the introduction of European diseases, the Spanish Maritime Empire was free to extract the resources of the New World. But mining for gold and silver was complex and required many dispensable workers, and a large population of native Americans remained in the ashes of the Aztec and Incan Empires. Spain had to find new measures to govern their conquered territories.

Forced Labor Systems in Colonial South America

To extract the wealth of silver and gold from the mountains of South America, the Spanish Empire introduced the Encomienda System, a brutal development of the Incan Empire's seasonal forced labor system that created the infrastructure of the now-fallen empire. The system was utilized by regional governors appointed by the Spanish Empire. The Spanish Crown introduced the system to prevent outright slavery in South America, but it only further promoted intense forced labor.

Integration in Colonial South America

In both intentional and unintentional ways, the Spanish Empire's culture melded with the New World's culture. Spanish Christian missionaries introduced their religion to South and Latin America, attempting to convert and syncretize the native populations to Spanish culture. These missionary trips were very successful. By 1531, the indigenous Mexican Juan Diego claimed to have seen the Virgin Mary (also known as Our Lady of Guadalupe), an essential figure in the Christian religion–successfully conflating her with Tonantzin, the Aztec goddess-mother.

The conquest of the Spanish missionaries is evident when we consider that to this day, South and Latin America are dominantly Catholic.

Continued reproduction between Spaniards, American natives, and imported Africans created a new set of classes called Creole, Mestizo, and Mulatto (specified in the chart below). Entirely new cultures were born in the New World as a merging of Spanish, African, and American traditions.