Can you imagine a time when women had to burn themselves alive upon hearing news of their husband's death? Believe it or not, this was a tradition for Women in Medieval India! Read on to understand the role of Indian women during this period.
Women's Role in Ancient India
Women enjoyed immense privileges in ancient India before their gradual erosion. Let's examine two formative periods that will allow us to understand the status quo of medieval times.
The Vedic Era (1500BCE - 600BCE)
The zenith of female power in India came during the Vedic Era.
Vedic Era
The name given during this period because of the production of Veda literature, which helped kingdoms in the Indus valley gain a cultural identity.
During this epoch, the migration of the Central Asian Aryan tribes to the Indus Valley that may have begun around 2000 BCE profoundly impacted the role of women in society. The Aryans brought Indo-European languages and their customs. Women were often warriors and had an array of avenues open to them including:
Gymnastics, archery, horse riding, public activities, education, and the selection of male partners."1
- Bhaswati Pal, "The saga of women's status in ancient Indian civilization," 2019
The activity which demonstrated the power they wielded most keenly was their autonomy in choosing a male partner, referred to as Swayamvara.
After a woman had selected their spouse, he would be given a garland and a ceremony would immediately take place. This all came during a period when a single religion did not have a hold over the population.
The role of the scholarly woman cannot be underestimated during this period, perhaps best illustrated by the philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi.
Gargi the Sage
Labeled "sage" for her wisdom, Gargi lived around 700 BCE. Her access to philosophical scriptures and Vedic literature gave her the platform to develop her consciousness.
Her greatest contribution was a metaphysical tug-of-war with eminent male philosopher Yajnavalkya. In their famous debate, it is not fully determined who won. Gargi's thoughtful line of questioning made Yajnavalkya end the argument because he had been unsettled.
Gargi's challenging of the male discourse was symptomatic of the elevated female role within the Vedic Era.
The arrival of Jainism and Buddhism (600 BCE - 200 BCE)
Towards the end of the Vedic Era, the disparate beliefs of the Indus Valley tribes crystallized into Hinduism.
Hinduism
Considered the oldest of the major world religions, Hinduism developed from the Vedic traditions of the various groups living along the Indus valley. The sacred Four Vedas texts spread during the final part of the Vedic Era as Jainism and Buddhism gained popularity.
Fig. 1 - Hindu manuscript in SanskritAlongside this new religion, other movements such as Jainism and Buddhism, each of which promoted non-violence, sprang up. These faiths helped change the general attitudes toward women in the region. Now, the female role in society came under scrutiny.
Women still had a role in warfare and could lead a monastic life. However, they began to suffer economically and monks received greater payment than nuns. Also, political involvement was prohibited.
The "devadasi" system, where women would devote themselves to a god, lead to the over-sexualization of women who had to "serve" priests and pilgrims. This ushered in a tradition of men having multiple concubines.
Women's Role in Medieval India
Before and during the medieval period (from about 500CE to 1500CE) conditions for women would continue to worsen.
The Age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti (200 BCE - 647 CE)
Hindu doctrine began to gain an even greater influence over the role of women during this epoch.
Age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti
This translates to the "Age of Right Conduct," a period where sacred texts such as the Mánusmṛiti provided a framework for how women should behave.
For the first time, women's educational opportunities became endangered. A girl's role now was largely predetermined as child marriage became commonplace, a far cry from the husband-choosing ceremonies of ancient India.
The following traditions exemplified just how marginalized women were becoming.
| Tradition | Explanation |
| Purdah | Around 100 BCE the tradition of "purdah" became prevalent and it gradually gained in popularity. Purdah refers to the segregation of men and women and the covering of their skin with a head scarf. |
| Sati | The suicide of a widow, who would murder herself upon the death of her husband (often burning herself alive on his funeral pyre) is the ultimate emblem of women's second-class status during this time. Sati became more frequent after the Gupta Empire united much of the Indian subcontinent between the 4th and 6th centuries. |
As women's sole purpose became child-rearing, men continued to have as many mistresses as they desired.
Women's Education in Medieval Times in India
Much of the seed change during this time came from the sacred Veda texts, which moved to block female access to literature. Contemporary texts went as far as to explicitly prohibit women from access to primary religious material.
Women have no business with the text of the Veda."2
- Prof M. M. Ninan, "Ambedkar's Philosophy of Hinduism and Contemporary Critiques", 2012
As we can see, the opportunities for women greatly diminished during the Vedic Era and even the period of Jainism and Buddhism. Now the role of women was to be subjugated, as the Hindus believed their intellectual contribution to be worthless.
Caste system:
The hereditary system of hierarchy within society is based on occupation, income, and education.
Illiteracy rates only served to reinforce these narratives during the Age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti and in medieval India, only the noble women, high in the caste system had access to education.
Muslim Invasions
With the rapid Spread of Islam taking hold during the 7th and 8th centuries from the Arabian Peninsula, it would be a matter of time before this new faith began to influence women in India.
The first Islamic foray into Indian territory was in 711 in the kingdom of Sind. However, it wasn't until the Delhi Sultanate that the Muslims truly exerted control.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526)
The Delhi Sultanate lasted over 300 years and stretched across much of northern India. It followed the Muslim playbook for maintaining power and allowed peaceful co-existence with other faiths and laws as long as the observation of "jizya" continued. The Delhi Sultanate also appointed Hindus and Buddhists to key administrative positions.
Harem:
A separate house or living quarters exclusively for women.
Jizya:
A compulsory tax paid by non-Muslims.
During this period a lack of female autonomy continued. The tradition of purdah became increasingly usual and a culture of harem compounded existing problems for women. It was also likely that in such quarters, the many wives of a wealthy man would be confined together.
The caste system meant that women of lower societal rank should not be under the same roof as wealthier men. Women in harems often functioned as slaves as well as concubines.
The Muslim Indians also practiced the immolation of women in an even more gruesome manner than sati, through a tradition known as "jauhar." In this process harems of defeated rulers suffered mass murder, being burnt alive to avoid defilement from invading forces.
Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857)
Another Muslim dynasty that ruled much of India with longevity was the Mughal Empire. Descendents of the Central Asian Timurids, the Mughal Empire continued many of the traditions that were prevalent under the Delhi Sultanate.
An early king, Akbar the Great (1556 - 1605) was responsible for some reforms and elevated the status of women in his kingdom. The Mughal Empire did not practice sati and allowed women to divorce their husbands. In addition, women could now claim their parent's property, giving them progress on an issue that had long favored men.
Although this was significant, women remained largely confined to their harems.
Fig. 2 - Drawing of Akbar the Great
Important Women Rulers of Medieval India
Despite all of their struggles, some women ruled over India! Let's examine a couple of significant female royals in medieval India.
Razia Sultana (1236 - 1240)
Daughter of the Emperor of the Delhi Sultanate, Razia was trained alongside her brothers in military combat and leadership. With the throne vacant, her father appointed her as his successor. However, this led to a struggle and her brother took control. Razia conspired to kill her brother, seizing royal power in the process and becoming the only female ruler of Delhi.
Changing her name to remove connotations of a queen, she wore gender-neutral clothing during her reign but only ruled for only four years after a smear campaign about sexual infidelity left her imprisoned.
Rudrama Devi (1262 - 1289)
Rudrama Devi enjoyed a longer period of rule, leading the Hindu Kakatiya dynasty. There are many parallels to draw with Razia Sultana, including the fact that she altered her name and attire to fit a masculine role. Rudrama proved an excellent queen who kept hostile invaders at bay and built the important Warangal Fort. She also allowed common men to be military commanders for the first time. Such was her prowess that famous traveler Marco Polo, who encountered her on his travels, testified that
She was a lover of justice, equity, and of peace."3
- Marco Polo quoted by Bangalore Surgyanarain Row, "A History of Vijayanagar," 1993
Fig. 3 - Statue of Rudrama Devi
Status of Women in Medieval India
To sum up, the conditions for women worsened during medieval times. Their multi-faceted role in society gradually diminished as religion gained a clearer jurisdiction over people's lives. The creation of sati and purdah exemplify this and Muslim traditions followed these trends, with the harem an emblem of women's marginalized position.
Women's Rights in Medieval India
We have demonstrated the limited rights of women during medieval India, despite the intentions of Muslim ruler Akbar the Great. Perhaps the biggest issue facing women was that of property. By the late Vedic Era, women no longer had property rights and this continued for the medieval period, only changing in 1937, with the Hindu Women's Right to Property Act.
Because of such an entrenched system, centuries of oppression that can never simply vanish and many issues facing women remain, most of all, the "primitive overtones facing women's status."4
Women In Medieval India - Key takeaways
- In Ancient India, women played many different societal roles, they picked their husbands, were educated, and played a role in warfare.
- The rise of Hindu doctrine diminished the female role and their rights to property and education.
- The traditions of sati and purdah exemplify the marginalized female role in medieval India.
- Muslim invaders did little to change the female status in society, though Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great introduced some reforms. However, the Muslim period coincided with their enslavement and increased sexualization in harems.
- Women rulers in medieval India often took on the traits of men to maintain power.
References
- Bhaswati Pal, "The saga of women's status in ancient Indian civilization", Miscellanea Geographica: Regional Studies on Development, Vol. 23 No. 3 (2019), pp. 180-184.
- Prof M. M. Ninan, Ambedkar's Philosophy of Hinduism and Contemporary Critiques (2012), pp. 64.
- Bangalore Suryanarain Row, The History of Vijayanaga: The Never To Be Forgotten Empire (1993), pp. 85.
- Sophie M. Tharakan and Michael Tharakan, "Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective", Social Scientist, Vol. 4, No. 4/5, Special Number on Women (Nov - Dec 1975), pp. 115-123.
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