Among the complex histories of warring states and conquering dynasties within China, it can be easy to forget the direct role that religion has played in the development of Chinese culture and society. The influence of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam have waxed and waned over the last two thousand years as emperors champion one religion and fight against another. The role of religion in Imperial China during the Medieval and Early Modern periods shaped the present state of modern-day China. In fact, one might wonder how modern China religions have impacted the nation and if so, which of China's historical religions remain prominent to this day?
Modern China Religion Geographical Context
Located in East Asia, China was largely removed from the religious wars of Europe and the Middle East. Foreign religions were not brought into China by marching knights and bannerman, but by prospecting traders and diplomats. Although various religions became suppressed at different points in Chinese history, the land of China became a wondrous melting pot of Afro-Eurasian religions.
Fig 1:
Map depicting the territories of modern-day China.
The Silk Road offered Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism access to China. The Indian Ocean trade, connecting with the Chinese seas, allowed for the further spread of Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism during the Medieval Era (5th to 15th centuries CE), while European vessels carrying Christian missionaries sailed into Chinese ports during the Early Modern Period (1450-1750). Islam became popular in cities such as Nanjing, while Macau acted as the Portuguese base of trade and Jesuit missionary work in China.
Modern China Religion Social Context
Before dissecting the religions of imperial and modern China, it is helpful to recognize the social context in which these religions spread, flourished, and even suffered. Chinese history is often categorized within the Dynastic Cycle, a tool used by historians to define the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties, and the periods of chaotic war sandwiched in between.
Dynastic Cycle:
A theory that describes Chinese history as a cycle: dynasties rise, establish order and prosperity, only to be corrupted and fall into a period of chaos, in which a new dynasty would arise, etc.
The influence of religions in China were inextricably tied to the welfare of the Chinese state. Sometimes, religions would grow in prominence during periods of war; such were the beginnings of Confucianism, while other religions were suppressed during dynastical rules, such as Christianity during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
The superior man, when resting in safety, does not forget that danger may come. When in a state of security he does not forget the possibility of ruin. When all is orderly, he does not forget that disorder may come. Thus his person is not endangered, and his States and all their clans are preserved.1
-Kong Fu Zi (Confucius)
Fig 2: Photograph of terracotta soldiers of the famous Chinese Terracotta Army.
Beyond the Dynastic Cycle, Chinese history is one of northern invasion and intrusive colonization. From the Mongols to the Manchurians and the British, hordes of invaders have brought their own religions into mainland China, forcefully impacting the development of Chinese society.
Modern China Religion History
The official religion of modern-day China is atheism, but the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) recognizes five major religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. These religions, as well as Confucianism, have fascinating stories within Imperial Chinese history.
Fig 3: Art depicting key figures of Chinese religion. From left to right: Shakyamuni (the Buddha), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Confucius (Confucianism).
Taoism in Modern China Religion
Founded by 6th century philosopher Lao Tzu, Taosim (or Daoism), was a spiritual philosophy of inaction and nonresistance. Taoism places great emphasis on the importance and power of nature, informing its followers to study nature instead of wasting their time worrying about the affairs of politicians, governments, and human-created organizations. Formulated from the teachings of ancient Chinese folk religions and beliefs, Taoism draws its core spiritual essence from the concept of Tao, meaning "way".
Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes. Don't resist them; that only creates sorrow. Let reality be reality. Let things flow naturally forward in whatever way they like.2
-Lao Tzu
Taoism fell behind other religions such as Confucianism and Buddhism, instead acting as the foundation for the success of later religions, but it remained a dominant presence in culture throughout all of Chinese history. Taoism suffered its greatest setbacks during the 13th to 14th century Mongol Yuan Dynasty but rebounded and is still practiced today.
Confucianism in Modern China Religion
During the sixth and fifth centuries BC, another philosopher named Kong Fu Zi, or Confucius, came to prominence. Claiming himself to be a "transmitter who invented nothing", Confucius sought to adapt Taoism into a more practical philosophy. Whereas Lao Tzu urged his followers to turn away from the politics and society, Confucius faced those same problems head on. Using traditional Chinese spiritual beliefs as the basis, Confucius advocated for ideas such as filial piety, the virtue of caring for one's parents, and humanism within a social context.
Modern China Religion and Philosophies:
Confucianism and Taoism; are they religions or philosophies? Seemingly, the primary emphasis is placed on their philosophical aspects, the direct prescriptions of how to properly live and be happy, or how to restructure your society to prevent conflict.
Importantly, the philosophical aspects of Confucianism and Taoism are built upon spiritual beliefs. In the case of Taoism, it is the Tao, the "way", while Confucianism places emphasis on Tian, or "heaven". The religious dimensions of the two beliefs systems are the engines of their more worldly, practical beliefs.
And yet, for how important Confucianism has been to Chinese history and culture, it is not listed as one of the five primary religions of the CCP. There are many reasons, but among them is that Confucian beliefs are so deeply rooted in Chinese culture that declaring it an official religion might cause friction with the CCP's status as an atheistic state. Chinese people (and people all around the world), actively practice the virtues taught by Confucianism without even knowing it.
Confucius proposed the organization of society as the organization of the fundamental family unit; a leader (father) at the head, with the nation (family) subservient to him. Confucianism formed the basis of the civil service examinations, Chinese imperial exams that dictated who could serve in government offices. Starting with the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), and really kicking off with the Song Dynasty (960-1127 CE), Confucianism remained the core religious philosophy of Chinese elite leading into the modern era.
Indian Religions in Modern China Religion
Siddhārtha Gautama was a 5th century BC spiritual leader born in India. Also known as Shakyamuni, or Buddha, Siddhārtha founded the Buddhist religion and kick-started its spread across Eurasia. It is first believed that Buddhism came to China in the 1st century CE during the reign of Han Dynasty, developing a following as the Mahayana school of Buddhist thought.
Did you know: In the 7th century CE, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Xuanzang made an adventurous pilgrimage to India, where he studied at the Nalanda temple. His journey facilitated a transfer of knowledge between two Asian peoples, recorded a detailed account of Medieval India, and formed the base story for the famous 16th century Ming Dynasty novel, Journey to the West.
By tying Buddhist ideology into the fundamental beliefs of Taoism, Buddhist monks rapidly spread their religion throughout East Asia. Buddhism sometimes faced persecution on the pretenses that it was a foreign religion, but it generally remained as a dominant religion in Imperial China's history, officially promoted in various forms through the courts of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. In a 2016 poll, 15.87% of Chinese citizens identified as Buddhist practitioners.
Abrahamic Religions in Modern China Religion
The Abrahamic religions of Islam and Christianity (later divided between Catholicism and Protestantism) also became mainstays in Imperial China, though to a lesser degree than the previously mentioned religions. The first Islamic Mosque was built in 627 CE in Guangzhou, under the rule of the Tang Dynasty, while the first Christian church was built in Xi'an just a few decades later.
Fig 4: Photograph of a mosque in Langzhou, China.
The two major Abrahamic religions flourished during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), and Islam would soon find hold among Ming Dynasty courts, exemplified by the Islamic eunuch admiral Zheng He who traveled from China to Mecca and South Africa, and every point in between. Christian missionary Matteo Ricci served in Chinese courts and utilized the same evangelizing tactics of Buddhist priests by merging Christianity with Confucian and Taoist traditions, much to the disapproval of the Catholic Church.
Modern China Religion Beliefs
From the Medieval Era to modern times, world religions have found a permanent home in China. Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhist, Islam, and Christianity all influenced Chinese culture, telling stories of globalization in lands distant from their homelands and of ancient traditions finding purchase in the minds of people thousands of years after their creation.
Modern China Religion - Key takeaways
- Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam were the foremost religions in China's history, ranging from the Medieval Era to modern times and all throughout Imperial China.
- Confucianism and Taoism are philosophical religions with spiritual foundations founded on Chinese soil. Both were greatly influential to the development of Chinese culture and society.
- Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam all traveled to China from the west and found a strong foothold in East Asia. All three remain officially recognized religions within modern-day China.
References
- https://www.thoughtco.com/best-confucius-quotes-2833291
- https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/2622245.Lao_Tzu
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