Many people often consider Hinduism as one of the most impactful religions in India's history. By that same token, many people frequently forget that from 1206 to 1857, the Indian subcontinent was dominated by vast and powerful Islamic dynasties established by Turkic migrants. But before the powerful Mughal Empire (1526-1827) could rise, the Sultanate of Delhi was tasked with defining the shape of Islamic rule in a warm land with a resilient population that even the Mongols had previously failed to conquer.
Delhi Sultanate Definition
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic Empire located in South Asia (mainly the Indian subcontinent) that lasted from 1206 to 1526, a period of 320 years. It is named after the capital of the sultanate: Delhi, an old city in Northern India. Historians divide the Sultanate of Delhi's reign into five separate and distinct dynastical rules. The five dynasties are:
Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290)
Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)
Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1413)
Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Map depicting the Sultanate of Delhi in 1320 CE. Source: Tulika and Satvik, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons.
The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first generation immigrants from Persia and Central Asia: Persians (‘Tājīks’), Turks, Ghūrīs and also Khalaj from the hot regions (garmsīr) of modern Afghanistan.”
–Historian Peter Jackson
The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate tells a tale of Turkic migration, a popular trend during the Medieval Era in which Central-Asian ethnic Turks spread throughout Eurasia, ingratiating themselves in the societies and politics of major world powers. Sometimes the migrations were of the Turkic people's own volition. In some cases, Turks were forced to migrate. In the Medieval Islamic states of the Middle East, it was popular to take slaves from foreign lands, as it was illegal to enslave Muslims. Many Turks became “slave-warriors,” or Mamluks, for the Middle Eastern Caliphates. As it turns out, the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was a Mamluk.
Delhi Sultanate Rulers
Across 320 years of history and five different dynasties, the Delhi Sultanate had many different rulers. Some ruled for less than a year, others for decades.
The Founder of the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate's history begins with an invasion. By the 10th century, Islamic Turks of the Ghaznavid Dynasty were raiding throughout Northern India, jabbing at defenses and spreading Turkic culture, but never settling on the land. Later, a Sultan of the Persian Ghurid Dynasty named Muhammed of Ghor sought to take a permanent stake in Northern India. From 1173 to 1206, Muhammed of Ghor pressed into Northern India. His conquest ended in his own assassination, but his dream did not die.
Ghaznavid Dynasty:
Sunni Islamic Persian empire that ruled in South Asia from 977 to 1186.
Grave of Qutb al-Din Aibak. Source: Muhammad Umair Mirza, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons.
One of Muhammed of Ghor's Mamluk generals, a man named Qutb al-Din Aibak, took power in Northern India and officially became the first sultan of Delhi. Aibak garnered a positive reputation for his generosity and the loyalty of his fighting soldiers, but historians still debate how exactly the Mamluk came to inherit power in India. Aibak was either appointed by Muhammed of Ghor before his death in 1206 or took the position by a mix of diplomacy and force. In any case, Aibak's reign ended in 1210 and was followed by a chaotic struggle for succession. Because of Aibak's Mamluk roots, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is known as the Mamluk Dynasty.
The Delhi Sultanate Under Tughluq Rule
The Sultanate of Delhi can be considered to have reached its peak in the 1320s, the year in which the state reached its greatest territorial extent. Simultaneously, the 1320s were the beginning of the Tughluq Dynasty, established by Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. Ghiyath al-Din suppressed rebellions, conquered Bengal, and maintained relative peace and prosperity within his state. His successor, Muhammad bin Tughluq, led a more controversial rule that spanned 26 years. Sultan Muhammed inspired the rise of many enemies, ordered a failed invasion of China, and implemented detrimental tax policies.
A coin issued by the Delhi Sultanate during the Tughluq Dynasty. Source: CNG Coins, CC-BY-SA-3.0-migrated, Wikimedia Commons.
The Tughluq Dynasty also experienced one of the most devastating invasions of the Delhi Sultanate's history. In 1398, the mighty Turkic-Mongol warlord Timur the Lame descended upon northern India. Timur the Lame, also known as Tamerlane, famously set camels on fire and rushed them towards the forces of the Delhi Sultanate to cause disruption among the ranks and frighten the sultanate's elephants. The capital of Delhi fell to Timur that same year. Through conquest, Timur had laid the groundwork for the future downfall of the Delhi Sultanate at the hands of his descendants.
The Last Rulers of the Delhi Sultanate
The Lodi Dynasty was ruled by an Iranic people of the Lodi Tribe called Pashtuns. The Delhi Sultanate was already declined by the time the Lodi obtained power. Sultan Sikandar Lodi relocated his sultanate's capital to the city of Agra, a city which would later develop and flourish past the end of the Delhi Sultanate. Sikandar's son, Ibrahim Lodi, would be the last true ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Political tensions during Ibrahim Lodi's reign culminated in the 1526 Battle of Panipat, where the future Mughal Emperor Babur would defeat Ibrahim Lodi and establish his own dynasty in India.
Battle of Panipat:
The chief instigator of the fall of the Delhi Sultanate was not Babur, the warlord descendent of both Timur and Genghis Khan, but rather one of the sultanate's own: Daulat Khan Lodi, a governor during Ibraham Lodi's reign. Daulat was a political enemy of Ibraham; he invited and aided Babur in invading India and ending Ibraham's reign. Babur's invasion culminated in the 1526 Battle of Panipat, a battle where Delhi forces greatly outnumbered the Timurid remnants under Babur. But the invaders made extensive use of gunpowder weaponry in dismantling their opponents. Ibraham Lodi died during the conflict, opening the way for Babur to establish the Mughal Empire.
Delhi Sultanate Innovations
The Delhi Sultanate is not renowned for its significant mechanical innovations or inventions. Rather, historians are fascinated by the innovative establishment of an Islamic state within an otherwise Hindu territory. By land, Northern India is difficult to access: most of it is capped off by the Himalayan mountains. The geographical barriers and warm climate previously prevented a Mongol invasion under Genghis Khan. Muhammed of Ghor's invasion of India was innovative in unprecedented success.
But when the invasions of the Ghurid Dynasty finally gained a foothold in India, the Islamic faith marched alongside them. Islam contrasted many of the core tenets of Hinduism, mainly in that it was a monotheistic religion rather than a polytheistic religion. There was one aspect of Islam that sparked the imagination of many Hindu practitioners: the idea of equality under God. The Hindu religion asserted a strict hierarchical society with little vertical movement; those born at the very bottom of society saw an opportunity in Islam to be free of their caste-driven subjugation.
Wherever you may be, death will overtake you, even if you should be within towers of lofty construction.”
–Passage from The Quran, Central Text of the Islamic Religion
While somewhat tolerant of Hinduism, many of the Delhi Sultanate's rulers were not exactly content with considering it equal to Islam. During every Delhi Sultanate dynasty, multiple major Hindu temples were desecrated, and their stones were sometimes used to construct Islamic mosques. While not necessarily innovative in this destruction of religious monuments, the firm hold that Islam obtained in Northern India has captivated historians for years.
Delhi Sultanate Architecture
The Delhi Sultanate oversaw the construction of many Islamic tombs and mosques throughout Northern India. Arches and domes were characteristic of Delhi architecture. These structures were a novelty in the Indian subcontinent, but ubiquitous styles of the Middle East. Perhaps the most famous and still-standing representation of Delhi Sultanate architecture is the Qutub Minar in Delhi, India, a 73-meter tall minaret tower (pictured below).
Minaret:
Islamic tower design constructed adjacent to mosques to act as a beacon of prayer.
Photograph of Qutub Minar in Delhi, India. Source: Indrajit Das, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons.
Delhi Sultanate Significance
The Delhi Sultanate was significant in how drastically it reshaped Northern India during the late Medieval Era. In converting large swathes of the population to Islam and inserting foreign cultures into the region, the Delhi Sultanate saw Northern India's economy and population flourish as they never had before. New technologies brought from the Middle East, expanding cities, and enhanced agricultural techniques modernized India, preparing it for centuries of global economic dominance as the Mughal Empire during the Early Modern Period.
Delhi Sultanate - Key takeaways
- The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state in Northern India that reigned from 1206 to 1526 over the course of five different dynastical rules.
- The Delhi Sultanate was established by the Mamluk Qutb al-Din Aibak, the foremost general of Ghurid Dynasty ruler Muhammed of Ghor.
- The Delhi Sultanate reshaped India in two key ways: by introducing Islam and converting much of the region's population, and by creating a powerful economy that sustained rapid population growth.
Explanations 
Exams 
Magazine 
