A well-known medieval scientist had a laboratory for alchemical experiments. The ultimate goal was to carry out the transmutation of lead into gold. He also dedicated his time to studying flight using a gadget with wings. This scientist was Roger Bacon, a 13th-century scholastic whose academic career included working at Oxford University and the University of Paris.
Fig. 1 - Roger Bacon observing the stars, Oxford University, Jan Verhas, 1867
Like today's colleges, Medieval universities offered higher education. However, there are many vital differences—from the curriculum to the types of students. From the 12th century onward, a network of universities arose in Europe, mainly present-day France, Italy, and England. These Medieval universities taught theology, medicine, law, and liberal arts. The earliest universities were akin to a corporation that included professors and students. They served as hubs for men from different countries to teach and learn.Theology:
The study of religious questions such as the nature of God.
Development of the Medieval Universities
Of course, these Medieval places of higher learning were not the first of their kind. Their predecessors were monastic and cathedral schools that existed within the framework of the Church. These institutions arose as early as the 6th century after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Because they were under the direct control of the Church, their teachers were both monks and nuns. Monasteries were the main hubs for intellectual, cultural, and artistic development at this time.
Monastic school:
An academic institution within the confines of the Church. The primary purpose of such schools was religious studies. However, the students also received general education. These students were expected to become clerics or monks upon completing their studies.
However, as urban centers became more important, so did the need for higher places of learning. As a result, from the 12th century onward, several universities emerged in cities across Europe. The 1079 Papal Decree issued by Pope Gregory VII initiated the eventual transformation of cathedral schools into universities. Early universities prioritized theological education, and their graduates rose to the ranks of the Church. At the same time, their curriculum included other subjects, such as liberal arts.
A Papal decree is a formal document issued by the Pope. Decrees were legally binding and consequential when the Church dominated all aspects of European life.
History of the Medieval Universities: A Timeline
The first ten universities in Europe include:
- University of Bologna (1088), Italy
- University of Paris (1150), France
- University of Oxford (1167), England
- University of Modena (1175), Italy
- University of Palencia (1208), Spain
- University of Cambridge (1209), England
- University of Salamanca (1218), Spain
- University of Montpellier (1220), France
- University of Padua (1222), Italy
- University of Toulouse (1229), France
Did you know?
Sometimes the universities' establishment dates vary because these institutions were subsequently issued charters.
Fig. 2 - A philosophy course in Paris, Grandes Chroniques de France, late 14th century
University of Paris
The University of Paris was founded around the year 1150, which makes it one of the oldest European universities. This university was a significant hub for critical scholastic thinkers, including Albert the Great (Magnus), Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and Bonaventure. The university's antecedents were the cathedral schools housed at Notre Dame. One of the key reasons for developing this particular university was Papacy's endorsement. As a result, by the 14th century, the University of Paris transformed into one of the most important institutions in Europe.
The university's academic focus was the faculty of theology. However, it also offered coursework in three other faculties: arts, canon law, and medicine. Arts were considered an inferior form of study, whereas medicine, theology, and canon law comprised the superior aspect of education. The medieval concept of art was different from the one today. It included two categories. The first category comprised music, astronomy, arithmetic, and geometry. It was known as quadrivium because there were four subjects. The second category, the trivium, comprised dialectic, grammar, and rhetoric.
Even though the arts faculty was deemed inferior to others, studying the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was essential. At this time, Aristotle was the central thinker for Scholasticism—the leading school of thought in medieval Christendom.
Scholasticism
Scholasticism was a school of thought in the Middle Ages that was particularly popular in the 13th-14th centuries. It was an international movement with thinkers from different European countries, including Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, John Duns Scotus, Bonaventure, William of Ockham, and many others. They combined Christian theology with philosophy, specifically the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Scholastics addressed many key intellectual concerns of the time, such as the relationship between faith and reason. For them, Medieval universities provided the necessary platform to hold debates and disseminate their ideas.
Structurally, the University of Paris had a dean for each faculty. In the 14th century, the arts faculty dean headed the entire university. He was called a rector.
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford (est. 1096-1167) was a prominent early institution of higher learning in England. This institution used the University of Paris as an academic blueprint. Like its Parisian counterpart, the University of Oxford also established the faculties of arts, medicine, law, and theology. And like Paris, the English university had its famous thinkers, including scholastics John Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, and William of Ockham. In the 13th century, the English crown also gave the University of Oxford a charter.
At first, Oxford was famous for its teaching of arts and the most important field, theology. However, as time went on, science study also gained currency. This institution placed more emphasis on science than its Parisian counterpart because of Roger Bacon's presence. This scholastic academic dedicated his time at Oxford (1247-1257) to teaching and scientific experiments. Theology, however, remained a central area of study at Oxford. Religious dogma played an essential role in European society at this time. In addition, Oxford housed both the Dominican and the Franciscan orders.
Students in Medieval Universities
Oxford did not have buildings for the first few years of its existence. As a result, the university held lectures in church halls, whereas its colleges were boarding houses. In the 13th century, Oxford already included Merton College, University College, and Balliol College. Poor students studying to receive bachelor's or master's of arts degrees lived in these boarding houses. To continue their studies, these students needed financial aid. It is also important to note that in terms of gender, the students in these Medieval academic institutions were men.
William of Ockham (ca. 1285-1347/9)
Willian of Ockam (sometimes Occam) was an English scholastic philosopher and theologian. He belonged to the Franciscan order. Ockham both studied and lectured at the University of Oxford. He was interested in many subject areas, for instance, logic and human nature. Today, William of Ockham is best known for the expression "Occam's razor." He believed that specific academic explanations of the world around us were too complex and needed to be "shaved off." Therefore, according to this concept, the simplest explanation for a particular event is the most likely.
Importance of the Medieval Universities
the importance of universities during the Middle Ages cannot be overestimated. In their halls, they teach the soon-to-be civil servants of the realm how to preach to future priests. They impacted the people to a high degree by directing what to believe and how to conduct themselves.
The Medieval Universities shaped the landscape of the Middle Ages, literally! They became towns and even cities, trade hubs, and sanctuaries. They even made kings and popes tremble with fear and anger, like Wittenberg at the end of the Middle Ages.
Universities in Medieval Europe continued transforming into the Renaissance era as they became more diverse. In Northern Europe, universities catered to undergraduates in liberal arts. Theology remained a preeminent faculty for graduate studies. In Italy, universities offer medicine and law to doctoral students. Their structure allowed professors to research many fields, including humanities, medicine, law, and philosophy. These changes were part of the social transformation during the Renaissance and Reformation.
Fig. 3 - Bookcases in the University of Leiden library, Willem Swanenburgh, Johannes Woudanus, 1610
Medieval Universities - Key Takeaways
- From the 12th century, a network of universities arose in Europe (present-day France, Italy, and England), teaching theology, arts, law, and medicine. They also produced graduates for the Church hierarchy.
- Medieval universities arose from the earlier monastic and cathedral schools.
- The University of Paris was one of the earliest places of higher learning. Its curriculum included theology, medicine, and canon law. This university also had an art faculty that offered math, language, and philosophy subjects.
- Critical scholastic intellectuals Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventure worked or studied at the University of Paris.
- The English University of Oxford initially modeled its operations after the University of Paris. Its famous academics included Roger Bacon, William of Ockham, and John Duns Scotus.
- European universities became more diverse during the Renaissance, and the emphasis on secular subjects increased.
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