The Cold War and Decolonization

In 1918, American President Woodrow Wilson announced his Fourteen Points: a peace proposal to end World War I. One of the most famous points was the following statement:

Self-determination was meant to address colonial claims. Wilson's critics later argued that his suggestions did not go far enough. Indeed, it was not until after the Second World War that European colonies truly began to gain political independence.

Wells Missionary Map Co. Africa. [?, 1908] Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/87692282/.

Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization

During the 20th Century, many former European colonies gained independence.

European Colonialism: Overview

Colonial conquest existed throughout history when large empires or stronger neighbors conquered smaller and weaker countries. Colonialism was not limited to Europe. However, starting from the 15th Century, it was mainly European powers that set across the world during the Age of Discovery and Conquest. The leading colonial powers with overseas colonies were:

• Portugal;
• Spain;
• Britain;
• France;
• Netherlands;

And others. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) controlled parts of southern Europe, such as the Balkans, the Caucasus, and the Middle East.

Even the United States briefly possessed formal colonies, such as the Philippines, acquired from Spain after the Spanish-American War (1898).

Late 19th-early 20th Century

Some of the independent states of the 21st Century were part of larger imperial blocs in the 19th Century. As the empires weakened through wars and overextension, these countries gained independence.

In the 19th Century, Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and other great powers, engaged in several conflicts, including:

• Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)
• Crimean War (1853-1856)
• Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Gradually, the Ottoman Empire grew weaker. At the same time, Russia took on the role of a defender of its fellow Orthodox Christians in the Balkans and Caucasus. As a result of some of these conflicts, the following states gained independence from the Ottomans:

• Greece (1821-1829)
• Bulgaria (1878 autonomy; 1908 independence)
• Romania (1878)
• Montenegro (1878)
• Serbia (1878)

World War I

World War I was the first major global conflict fought by over 30 countries on multiple fronts, including Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Some historians describe World War I as a war between all major European empires. One of the results of this event was the dissolution of three key empires: the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. New states formed in Europe in the aftermath, including:

• Austria
• Czechoslovakia
• Estonia
• Finland
• Hungary
• Poland

And others.

Decolonization: Definition

Decolonization is a process through which a former colony gains independence from a colonial empire or another type of powerful state.

Interwar Period

The first significant wave of decolonization occurred during the interwar period between the two world wars of the 20th Century.

Self-Determination

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson created his Fourteen Points to foster a framework for international peace. His concept of self-determination was to allow people around the world to choose their paths.

The mandate for Palestine, 1922-1923. Source: the British government, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).

League of Nations: Mandate System

The League of Nations, formed after World War I, became that very international peace organization.

The mandate system was one way in which the League of Nations pursued self-determination to a limited extent.

• The goal of the mandate system was to provide partial autonomy to the former colonies. At the same time, the system did not grant independence to the states in question. For example, the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire left Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine. The League of Nations treated their people paternalistically and did not believe they could govern themselves. For this reason, Britain received mandates over Iraq (until 1932) and Palestine (until 1948). France had ordered over Lebanon (until 1943) and Syria (until 1946). Some historians have criticized the Wilsonian concept of self-determination for not going far enough and for the League of Nations for treating non-Europeans in a racist way.

Ultimately, the League failed to prevent aggressive actions by several countries, including Italy, Japan, and Germany, in the 1930s. Consequently, it was dissolved and replaced with the United Nations in 1945.

The Cold War

The Cold War was a prolonged conflict between two powerful states, the United States, a self-described liberal democracy, and the Soviet Union, a socialist (Communist) country. The conflict began after the Second World War and ended in 1991. During the Cold War, the rivalry between these two countries split the world into two blocs of alliances.

At this time, the United States subscribed to the foreign policy of containment. This policy meant that the Americans challenged Communism and socialism around the globe. As the former colonies gained independence, the U.S. feared that they would join their rival's camp.

Causes of Decolonization

The causes of postwar decolonization were complex:

• The French and British empires were weakened by the Second World War, not unlike the imperial dissolution after World War I.
• The Japanese Empire dissolved due to losing World War II.
• The United Nations pushed for decolonization.
• The Soviet Union also pressured the Europeans to decolonize.
• Nationalist movements sought to overthrow colonial rulers.

The Cold War and Decolonization 1945 - 1975

The first half of the Cold War was a crucial period for decolonization because several former colonies gained formal independence. However, many problems remained, including:

• Economic inequalities between the Global North (such as western Europe and North America) and the Global South (the former colonies);
• Wars linked to decolonization, such as the Vietnam War.
• Ethnic and religious strife was caused by the establishment of borders that were not mindful of local specifics.

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India after that country, gained independence in 1947. Source: Wikipedia Commons (public domain).

The Cold War and Decolonization: Timeline

There are many examples of decolonized states after World War Two, including:

The Cold War and Decolonization: Examples

At times, decolonization was a violent process. The former empires did not want to let go of their colonies entirely. Also, the U.S. feared the spread of left-wing politics in the newly independent states rather than allowing them to choose their path. Finally, decolonization, at times, accompanied international power struggles. These issues led to:

• Wars;
• Societal instability and economic problems;
• Political assassinations.

Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was a complex conflict with many participants that arose from Vietnam's (Indochina) independence from France. The U.S. gradually became more involved in this war: from sending military advisors to dropping more bombs on Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia than all bombs used in the history of warfare at that time. The Americans wanted to prevent Vietnam from pursuing socialist politics for fear of that country falling into the Soviet camp. The two sides were:

• South Vietnam (supported by the United States, South Korea, Australia, and others);
• North Vietnam (supported by Viet Cong revolutionaries, North Korea, China, and the Soviet Union).

Viet Cong guerillas, 1966. Source: U.S. Army, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).

Despite American military superiority, unable to win, the U.S. withdrew from the conflict through the Paris Peace Accords in 1973. Three years later, the two states united as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Political Assassinations

Patrice Lumumba, 1960. Source: Nationaal Archief, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).

Decolonization in the 21st Century

In the 21st Century, much remains to be done for the former colonies, such as addressing the socio-economic inequalities in the Global South. Furthermore, some members of the civil society in the former European colonies wanted to go further than their political independence attained earlier. They argue that the former empires had recorded their histories. Therefore, the ongoing process of decolonization needs to translate into defining their histories as a way of reclaiming their identities.