Ming Dynasty

It was the age of global voyages; it was the age of isolationism. It was the season of civil war, the season of prosperity; China was ready to move into the future; China was locked in the past. Literary references besides the Ming Dynasty's history seem paradoxical at best. Born from the carcass of the short-lived Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty sought to redefine China's future outside of Mongol hands. Would China expand overseas? It certainly had the means to do so. Or would China recede within its borders, shy of incurring the wrath of yet another hostile takeover? Would history repeat itself, seeing the Ming Dynasty fall to bitter ruin?

Ming Dynasty Time Period

The Ming Dynasty's period is significant as it bridges the gap between the end of the Medieval Era (5th to 15th centuries) and the onset of the Modern Era (1750 to present). The Ming Dynasty mainly ruled during the Early Modern Era (1450-1750).

The following timeline provides a brief progression of events regarding the Ming Dynasty of China:

• 1363: The Battle of Lake Poyang ensues, seeing the defeat of Chen Youliang at the hands of Zhu Yuanzhang.

• 1368: Zhu Yuanzhang establishes the Ming Dynasty in China, titling himself the Hongwu Emperor.

• 1398: Zhu Yuanzhang dies, and his grandson Jianwen inherits the throne.

• 1402: After three years of the Jingnan Civil War, Zhu Yuanzhang's son Zhu Di ascends to the throne as the Yongle Emperor.

• 1405-1433: Endorsed by the Yongle Emperor, Zheng He departs on his infamous voyages.

• 1420: Construction of the Forbidden City within the new capital of Beijing is completed.

• 1449: The Tumu Crisis, in which Northern Yuan Mongol invaders captured the Ming emperor.

• 15th to 16th centuries: The Ming Dynasty works to refortify the Great Wall of China.

• 16th century: European maritime empires established ports in Ming China.

• 1644: After pressure from northern Manchurian invaders and internal rebellion, the Ming Dynasty fell and was replaced by the Qing Dynasty.

Ming Dynasty Map

The Ming Dynasty formed itself from within the decaying Yuan Dynasty. Its territorial boundaries would not come close to the borders of the Great Yuan, but its proximity in East Asia to the open seas still allowed for trade throughout the Chinese seas and into the Indian Ocean. The first Ming capital was located in Nanjing in the east, but the capital of Beijing in the north was established early into the dynasty's history.

Fig. 1- Map representing the territorial boundaries of the Ming Dynasty.

Ming Dynasty Definition

The Ming Dynasty was a Chinese imperial dynasty that reigned in East Asia from 1368 to 1644. Following nearly a century of Mongol reign in China, it fell to a handful of Chinese rebel warlords to push their nation into a new era. The Yuan Dynasty technically fell in 1368, but it had long been in decline, divided in some territories and supplanted by prospecting rebels. After the Hongwu Emperor united China and established the Ming Dynasty, it became his duty to bring China out of the shadows of the fallen Yuan Dynasty.

Fig. 2- Photograph of the Great Wall of China.

Mongol influence was fiercely suppressed during the Hongwu Emperor's reign. Many rebel warlords during the fall of the Yuan Dynasty claimed to be reestablishing the old's dynasties, whether the Han, Song or other. These grand claimants sought to bring the validity of Chinese tradition, history, and culture to their cause, but the Hongwu Emperor explicitly named his new state the novel "Ming," meaning "light." The new emperor meant to author a new chapter of Chinese history.

Ming Dynasty Emperors

Leading into the Early Modern Era, China needed strong leaders. How did its emperors fare when called to the challenge of imperial leadership?

The Ming Dynasty under the Hongwu Emperor

Born a peasant, Zhu Yuanzhang later became a poor Buddhist monk. His story did not end there; the Red Turban rebel group soon recruited Zhu. After marrying a rebel leader's daughter and constantly proving himself on the battlefield, Zhu Yuanzhang ascended to the leader of the rebellion. In besieging the city of Nanjing and defeating rebel leader Chen Youliang at the Battle of Lake Poyang, Zhu cemented himself as the most powerful leader in China. Uncontested, Zhu Yuanzhang took the opportunity to establish the Ming Dynasty, simultaneously titling himself the Hongwu Emperor.

So, how would a peasant turned rebel warlord lead his new empire? With suspicion, fear, animosity, and isolationism, it turns out. The Hongwu Emperor campaigned across East Asia and beyond while simultaneously forcefully solidifying his rule. He abolished the Chinese Censorate, enacted purges that killed tens, if not hundreds of thousands, considered to be his enemies, and shut down Chinese trade across Afro-Eurasia. Compared to the openness of the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan, the Ming Dynasty was off to a rough start.

The Ming Dynasty under the Yongle Emperor

The Hongwu Emperor died in 1398 after attempting to stabilize China by any means necessary. He made plans to divide his empire under his many sons but appointed his grandson Jianwen as heir prince of the throne. Jianwen's uncle, Zhu Di, had other plans. He initiated the Jingnan Civil War on the pretext of his emperor's nephew being hostage to corrupt politicians. In 1402, Zhu Di won the war for succession three years later and named himself the Yongle Emperor. Some historians consider the Yongle Emperor's ascension to be the second start of the Ming Dynasty, and for a good reason.

Fig. 3- Art depicting the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty.

The Yongle Emperor (who reigned from 1402 to 1424) essentially reversed the mentality and policies of the Hongwu Emperor, his father. In 1406 he began constructing the Forbidden City in the new capital of Beijing, a luxurious palace meant to display the wealth of a new nation. He expanded China's borders, reopened the nation to trade, and sponsored the most impressive intentional Medieval globalization effort in history, the seven voyages of Ming Admiral Zheng He. From Beijing to the East Coast of Africa, all were made aware of the strength of the Ming Dynasty and the Yongle Emperor. Though the voyages were expensive, Ming trade and foreign politics flourished.

Ming Dynasty Religion

Following a period of disdain towards Christianity and Buddhism under the Hongwu Emperor, the Ming Dynasty opened up to various world religions. Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism were the three primary religions of China, but Christianity and Islam established a strong foothold in port cities and colonies. The Portuguese established the trading port colony of Macau in China in 1557. Twenty-five years later, Italian Jesuit Priest Matteo Ricci landed in Macau to spread the Christian faith in China.

Fig. 4- Art depicting Matteo Ricci in China.

The post-Hongwu Ming Dynasty was a great melting pot of religions and cultures, only to be shut down again by the Qing Dynasty, in which a prominent religion such as Christianity was entirely banned within China's borders, its preachers booted from the isolationist country.

The Ming Dynasty in Decline

The Yongle Emperor's reign would also mark the best of Ming emperorship. Weak or incompetent leaders primarily marked the dynasty's future. From Zhengtong, captured by Yuan Mongol forces in the 1449 Tumu Crisis, to the distant and uninterested Wanli Emperor (reigned 1572-1620), most of the Ming Dynasty's emperors were not up to the task. Eunuchs often reserved power for themselves, and political drama drove the dynasty towards its end.

The Ming Dynasty of the 17th century was marred by peasant uprisings and pressure from northern Manchurian forces. A "Little Ice Age" around East Asia had ruined crop seasons, inciting floods, droughts, famine, and starvation. Fear of future northern invasions caused Ming emperors to finance the completion of the Great Wall of China, an impractical project that sapped tax money from the Ming court and turned attention away from China's impressive navy. Unimpressed with their costly fleet, Chinese politicians ordered the destruction of the navy, further pushing China towards a path of isolationism.

The people lost faith in their government and were ready to accept a new kind of rule, similar to how they accepted the Mongols centuries before. Beijing fell to a rebel force in 1644, but the rebels were defeated and replaced by Manchurian armies who had refashioned themselves as the Qing Dynasty (1636-1912).

Ming Dynasty Achievements

The Ming Dynasty ended in 1644 as the last Han Chinese dynasty, continuing the cyclical rise and fall of dynasties within Chinese history. So the question remains: what made the Ming Dynasty different from all the rest?

The Ming heralded the influence of the European maritime powers and preserved Chinese cultural heritage, traditions, and history through expansive works of literature, such as the Yongle Dadian encyclopedia commissioned by the Yongle Emperor or the 1592 Journey Into the West, a fantastical retelling of the adventures of Medieval traveler Xuanzang. Ming artisans perfected the art of crafting famous Chinese white and blue porcelain dishes and furniture. Ming traders continued to travel the world, engaging in the first efforts of a new, truly global trade. Every Ming citizen in between continued to define the history of China.